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THE  AMERICAN  COLLEGES 
AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN 
THE  GREAT  WAR 

1914-1919 


BOOKS  BY  PRESIDENT  THWING 
ON  COLLEGE  SUBJECTS 

Aniorican    Colleges:     Their    Students    and 

Work 
\\  ithin  College  Walls 
The  College  Woman 

'ITie  American  College  in  American  Life 
College  Administration 
The  Choice  of  a  College 
If  I  were  a  College  Student 
A  Liberal  Education  and  a  Liberal  Faith 
College  Training  and  the  Business  Man 
Higher  Education  in  America :  a  History 
Education  in  the  Far  East 
History  of  Education  in  the  United  States 

since  the  Civil  War 
Universities  of  the  World 

Letters  from  a  Father  to  His  Son  Entering 
College 

Letters  from  a  Father  to  His  Daughter  En- 
tering College 

The  Co-ordinate  System  of  the  Higher  Edu- 
cation 

The  American  College:  What  It  Is  and 
What  It  May  Become 

Education  According  to  Some  Modern  Mas- 
ters 

The  Ministry:   An  Appeal  to  College  Men 
The  Training  of  Men  for  the  World's  Fu- 
ture 
The  College  Gateway 

The  American  Colleges  and  Universities  in 
the  Great  War:  a  History 


THE  AMERICAN  COLLEGES 

AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN 

THE  GREAT  WAR 

1914-1910 


A  HISTORY 


BY 

CHARLES  FRANKLIN  THWING,  Litt.D.,  LL.D. 
President  of  Western  Reserve  University 


Jl3eto  gork 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1920 

All  rights  reserved 


31Glt 


Copyright,  1920, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


..Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published,  September,  1920 


-n^ 


TO 

FRANCIS  WENDELL  BUTLER-THWING, 

ANDOVER,  HARVARD.  AND 
NEW  COLLEGE,  OXFORD 

CAPTAIN,  COLDSTREAM  GUARDS 


PEEFATOKY  NOTE 

'  V       The  lack  of  adequate  interpretation  of  the  part 
^  which   the   American   colleges,   both   Northern    and 
Southern,  played  in  the  Civil  War  has  long  seemed 
4/j  to  me  a  public  and  an  academic  misfortune.     The 
P^  possibility  of  filling  this  lack  lessens  with  each  pass- 
•  ing  year.     The  share  which  the  American  college 
f>  and  university  had  in  the  World's  War  was  at  least 
as  significant  and  impressive  as  that  which  the  Civil 
<5  War  represents.     Early,  therefore,  in  the  great  strug- 
<9   gle,  I  began  to  collect  materials  for  its  academic  his- 
j    tory.     These  materials  include  evidences  furnished 
/O      directly  by  hundreds  of  institutions,  as  well  as  the 
'         more  typical  sources  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  news- 
papers.    To  each  college  officer,  who  has  thus  gra- 
ciously and  generously  aided  me,  I  am  grateful. 

This  history,  concerned  with  a  small  social  and 
educational  group,  has  yet  largest  relations.  For  it 
helps  to  prove  that  the  higher  education,  in  the  per- 
son of  its  teachers  and  students  of  successive  genera- 
tions, trains  men  for  the  service  of  the  nation.  While 
higher  education  may  in  certain  respects  be  justly 
charged  with  narrowness,  it  yet,  be  it  affirmed,  uses 


Prefatory  Note 

its  narrowness  for  an  increase  of  all  human  forces 
and  for  a  worthy  bettering  of  all  that  makes  for  the 
welfare  of  men.  I  trust  that,  from  the  reading  of 
these  pages,  one  may  come,  as  I  come  from  their 
writing,  with  a  lordlier  hope  for  the  race  and  for 
the  races. 

C.  F.  T. 
Western  Reserve  University, 
Cleveland, 
1st  January,  1920. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Prefatory  Note vii 

\^    I  MoTH^Es  FOR  Entering  the  Service     ...      1 

II  Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States    14 

III  Financial  Eelations  of  the  Colleges  ...     40 

/  IV  The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps  ...     55 

^  V    The  Enlisted 85 

VI  College  Officers  in  War  Service  ....     92 

VII  The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier  ...     99 

VIII  The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  ....  115 

IX    The  Women's  Colleges 140 

X  The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier     .     .  151 

XI  Poetry  as  an  Interpretation  of  the  War     .  167 

Xn    International  Relations 180 

XIII  The  Fallen 210 

XIV  The  Commencements  of  the  War  Period     .  231 

XV    Some  Enduring  Effects  op  the  War  on  the 

Colleges  and  the  Universities    ....  245 

XVI    Academic  Memorials 261 

Index 271 


THE  AMERICAN  COLLEGES 

AND  UNIVERSITIES  IN 

THE  GREAT  WAR 


MOTIVES    FOR    ENTERING    THE    SERVICE 

The  conditions  belonging  to  the  college  man  create 
the  motives  inspiring  him  to  enter  his  country's 
service  in  time  of  war. 

Of  these  conditions  perhaps  the  most  obvious  is  the 
college  man's  age.  He  is,  on  entering  as  a  freshman, 
about  eighteen  years  old.  This  age  and  the  following 
four  years  form  the  close  of  the  period  of  his  emo- 
tional, and  the  beginning  of  his  mature  intellectual, 
gi'owth.  The  feelings  are  strong,  easily  stirred, 
readily  moving  toward  the  great,  the  sublime,  the 
commanding.  With  emotionalism  is  associated  the 
faculty  of  imagination.  This  youth  thinks  in  pic- 
tures. If  the  developing  and  enriched  intellect  fur- 
nishes material  and  content  of  these  pictures,  the 
feelings  move  the  hand  of  imagination  to  paint  them 
in  brightly  glowing  colors.     The  sense  of  adventure 


2        Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Oreat  War 

faseinatos.  The  jjossibilitics  wliich  the  adventure 
liolds  fortli  stir  the  souh  The  glory  of  the  adventure, 
even  if  it  be  touched  with  the  probability  of  death, 
beckons.  The  highest  ambition  of  this  manly  youth 
—  human  liberation  —  gets  hold  of  every  part  of  his 
being.  I  can  —  I  will  —  I  must  —  he  cries.  Of 
course,  to  a  certain  extent,  such  feelings  and  imagina- 
tions belong  to  every  young  man.  Enrollment  in  the 
army  or  navy  by  the  student  is  only  a  part  of  the 
heroism  of  youth.  But  such  feelings  do  at  least  seem 
to  rise  to  a  higher  level,  to  a  whiter  crest,  and  to  as- 
sume more  brilliant  coloring,  on  the  brow  and  in  the 
bosom  of  the  college  man. 

Another  condition  belonging  to  the  student  is  his 
sense  of  democracy.  He  is  a  member  of  a  little  group 
in  which  equals  moving  with  equals  represent  the 
common  lot.  These  men  are  a  part  of  the  great  third 
estate.  They  are  as  pebbles  flung  together  on  the 
same  beach  by  the  hand  of  destiny  to  be  rounded  and 
polished  by  the  same  forces.  The  differences  which 
divide  men  outside  academic  walla  have  a  certain 
value;  but  the  value  is  much  smaller  than  ordinary 
humanity  assigns.  Wealth,  social  distinction,  herit- 
age of  a  noble  name,  militate  quite  as  much  against 
as  for  the  student's  timely  advantage.  The  group  as 
seen  in  a  fraternity  house  represents  the  par  inter 
pares.     The  floor  of  the  classroom  is  built  on  one 


Motives  for  Entering  the  Service  3 

level,  and  that  floor  has  only  a  few  square  feet.  The 
college  chapel,  the  table  in  the  reading  room,  the 
benches  in  the  chemical,  and  the  physical,  laboratory 
represent  a  commmiity  and  an  equality  of  interest. 
The  gridiron  and  diamond  stand  for  brotherhood  and 
cooperation.  These  forces,  outwardly  and  materially 
visible,  are  only  the  sign  of  the  inward  forces  which 
unite.  /  College  men  think  together,  even  if  not 
alike.  They  are  moved  by  similar  ambitions  and 
stirred  by  like  motives  and  ideals,  even  if  the  con- 
summate achievement  be  not  alike.  A  thousand  or 
a  hundred  hearts  beat  as  one.  Therefore,  a  wave  of 
patriotism  touches  segregated  and  separated  indi- 
vidualities, and  combines  them  into  unities.  One 
bugle  call  is  heard  by  a  thousand  ears;  one  flag  is 
seen  by  a  thousand  eyes.  As  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
said  at  a  commencement  of  his  Alma  Mater,  in  the 
midst  of  the  Civil  War  in  1863,—"  The  hero  in  his 
laurels  sits  next  to  the  divine  rustling  in  the  dry  gar- 
land of  his  Doctorate.  The  poet  in  his  crown  of  bays, 
the  critic,  in  his  wreath  of  ivy,  clasp  each  other's 
hands,  members  of  the  same  happy  family.  This  is 
the  birthday  feast  for  every  one  of  us  whose  fore- 
head has  been  sprinkled  from  the  font  inscribed 
Christo  et  Ecclesiae.  We  have  no  badges  but  our 
diplomas,  no  distinctions  but  our  years  of  gradua- 
tion.    This  is  the  Republic  carried  into  the  Univer- 


4        Colleges  ami  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

sitv ;  all  of  us  arc  born  cciual  into  this  gi'cat  fra- 
tcinitv."  '  The  rcs])onsc,  the  reaction,  the  patriotic 
stimulus,  work  on  the  feeling  of  each  and  of  every 
other  nuui,  reenforcin<;,  increasing,  magnifying,  de- 
veloping it.  Excitement  begets  excitement.  Thrill 
stirs  thrill.  Each  man  goes  vrhere  others  go,  and 
the  others  go  where  each  goes.  The  democracy  of 
the  group  promotes  the  martial  enrollment.    J 

This  essential  quality  of  democracy  seems  not  to 
have  suffered  under  the  conditions  of  the  modern 
college.  The  college  of  the  early  and  middle  dec- 
ades of  the  Nineteenth  Century  was  a  college  of  pe- 
culiarly united  interests.  Students  of  the  same  class 
studied  the  same  subjects.  Year  by  year,  the  prog- 
ress was  regular  and  general.  The  two  ancient  lan- 
guages, mathematics,  with  certain  excursions,  more 
or  less  brief,  into  English,  philosophy,  the  modem 
languages,  science,  and  history,  formed  the  founda- 
tion of  the  orderly  academic  structure.  With  a  few 
minor  exceptions,  each  student  did  what  the  other 
did.  Of  the  modem  college,  however,  diversity,  sepa- 
rateness,  individualism,  is  the  distinctive  mark. 
Students  of  the  same  class  are  divided  by  many  and 
diverse  interests.  Members  of  different  classes  are 
usually    joined    together    in    the    same    subjects    of 

1  Address  before  the  Association  of  the  Alumni  of  Harvard 
College,  16th  July,  1863. 


Motives  for  Entering  the  Service  5 

study.  The  elective  system  stands  for  individuality 
of  choice.  Each  man  pursues  his  own  will  under  the 
general  supervision  of  college  officers.  Yet,  despite 
these  individualisms,  the  college  spirit  is  still  one, 
the  college  atmosphere  one,  and  the  general  aim  one. 
The  democratic  movement  and  condition  of  equality 
is  still  regnant. 

[■  The  democracy  of  war  and  the  democracy  of  edu- 
cation are  impressively  alike.  For  war  makes 
equals.  War  promotes  equality  between  men  of  the 
same  grade  or  kind.  If  it  create  differences  and 
distinctions  between  different  grades  of  service,  it 
yet  makes  men  of  the  same  order  equal.  All  pri- 
vates in  the  ranks  are  alike.  Exterior  distinctions 
are  lost.  The  titled  are  as  obscure  as  the  obscure; 
the  obscure  as  distinguished  as  the  titled.  The 
poor  are  as  rich  as  the  rich  and  the  rich  are  as  poor 
as  the  poor.  A  boy  of  distinguished  ancestry  and 
education,  brought  up  in  peculiarly  exclusive  sur- 
roundings, was  serving  at  the  front  as  a  private.  In 
a  letter  to  his  mother  he  told  about  two  of  his  special 
chums.  One  of  them  was  Erine  O'Callahan  and  the 
other  Billie  Sweeny.  He  wrote  to  his  mother  — 
"  You  can't  beat  those  boys  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
I  want  you  to  call  upon  their  mothers."  Education 
is  likewise  democratic  —  a  common  obedience  for 
all  men,  themselves  personally  equal  or  unequal,  and 


6        Colleges  and  Universities  in  (he  Oreat  War 

a  common  opportunity.  It  has  been  said  that  in 
Germimy  there  were  no  equals  —  only  superiors  or 
inferiors.  In  America  one  might,  with  equal  truth, 
say,  there  are  only  equals.  America  holds  open  one 
educational  gateway.  It  paves  one  road  to  learning, 
and  that  not  royal.  It  points  out  one  goal  which  it 
inspires  each  to  reach.  Autocracy  in  education  is 
narrow  and  narrowing,  inclined  to  accept  social 
stratification.  Democracy  in  education  is  broad,  as 
broad  as  human  nature.  Autocracy  in  education  is 
prone  to  being  materialistic.  Democracy  is  idealis- 
tic. Aristocracy  in  education  is  liable  to  forget  hu- 
manity's hard,  complex  problems.  Democracy  in 
education  is  sympathizing  and  inspiring  of  ever;y 
worthy  endeavor. 

A  further  motive  for  enrollment,  and  also  its 
origin,  is  the  fundamental  element  of  patriotism, 
both  historical  and  personal.  The  college  man  loves 
his  country  for  the  reason  which  leads  the  mature 
civilian  to  love  it,  the  reason  found  in  his  birtli 
within  its  borders  and  in  its  beneficence  to  him  and 
to  his.  But  also  the  college  man  loves  it  because 
of  a  peculiar  sense  of  possession.  It  is  his  country, 
He  belongs  to  it,  and  it  belongs  to  him.  With  this 
sense  is  often  joined  the  sense  of  her  peril  and  alsc 
the  sense  that  she  may  have  suffered  or  be  in  danger 
of  suffering  an  insult.     It  is  his  place  to  retaliate  oi 


Motives  for  Entering  the  Service  1 

to  defend.  His  patriotism  is  rather  a  love  of  her 
than  a  movement  of  the  will,  although  the  heart's 
love  proves  itself  in  overt  acts.  The  patriotism  does 
show  itself  in  the  college  songs  and  the  commemora- 
tion odes  of  all  countries. 

Is  there  any  poem  of  the  war  in  which  this  spirit 
is  more  fully  voiced  than  in  Winifred  M.  Letts' 
"  The  Spires  of  Oxford  "  ? 

I  saw  the  spires  of  Oxford 

As  I  was  passing  by, 
The  gray  spires  of  Oxford 

Against  a  pearl  gray  sky. 
My  heart  was  with  the  Oxford  men 

Who  went  abroad  to  die. 

The  years  go  fast  in  Oxford, 

The  golden  years  and  gay, 
The  hoary  Colleges  look  down 

On  careless  boys  at  play. 
But  when  the  bugles  sounded  war 

They  put  their  games  away. 

They  left  the  peaceful  river, 

The  cricket  field,  the  quad. 
The  shaven  lawns  of  Oxford 

To  seek  a  bloody  sod  — 
They  gave  their  merry  youth  away 

For  country  and  for  God. 

God  rest  you,  happy  gentlemen, 
Who  laid  your  good  lives  down, 


8        Colleges  ami  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Who  took  the  khaki  and  the  gun 

Instead  of  cap  and  gown. 
God  bring  yon  to  a  fairer  place 

Than  even  Oxford  town. 

These  lines  are  a  confirmation  of  Lowell's  Com- 
memoration Ode  of  fifty  years  ago. 

The  motive  of  the  college  man  is  also  manifest  in 
what  might  be  called  interpatriotism.  The  student 
loves  his  own  country  and  his  fellow  citizens  much. 
He  loves  all  countries  and  his  human  brothers  more. 
In  the  Great  War  French  students  fought  for  France 
and  British  students  too  fought  for  France.  They 
also  fought  for  liberty  and  fraternity,  for  all.  Ox- 
ford, Aberdeen,  and  Edinburgh  men  died  for  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  but  they  also  died  for  ravaged 
Belgium  and  for  damaged  humanity.  American 
college  students  enrolled  and  served  in  danger-zones 
long  before  America  entered  the  war.  They  made 
the  great  sacrifice  for  other  people  than  their  owm. 
As  President  Eliot,  speaking  to  the  Harvard  men  at 
the  time  of  the  Spanish  War,  said :  "  ^Tiat  are  the 
fundamental  and  legitimate  motives  .  .  .  which  lead 
one  to  enlist?  There  are  two  which  seem  to  me 
very  weighty ;  and  these  two  really  make  but  one,  but 
that  one  how  strong !  The  first  is  the  sense  that  every 
member  of  human  society  is  mainly  indebted  for  his 
own  character,  resources  and  happiness  to  the  slowly 


Motives  for  Filtering  the  Service  9 

developed  qualities  and  slowly  accumulated  resources 
of  the  particular  society  into  whicli  he  was  horn. 
Society  gives  the  individual  everything  which  makes 
his  life  valuable  to  him ;  he,  in  return,  owes  his  life 
and  his  all  to  society  whenever  its  interests  are  im- 
perilled. This  principle  applies  in  a  tribe  of  sav- 
ages, but  with  greatest  force  in  the  most  civilized  so- 
ciety." ^  The  first  members  of  the  Harvard  broth- 
erhood who  were  laid  in  their  graves  in  France  were 
saluted  in  these  words :  "  Ce  sera  une  date  his- 
torique,  cette  journee  d'automne  ou  nous  avons  en- 
seveli  en  terre  de  France  nos  amis,  conduits  au  petit 
cimetiere  avec  un  piquet  de  soldats  frangais  et 
americains,  les  corps  converts  du  Star  Spangled  Ban- 
ner et  du  Tricolore.  Sur  leur  tombe,  notre  colonel 
prononga  ces  simples  mots :  '  je  vous  salue,  enfants 
d'une  noble  race ;  reposez  dans  cette  terre  de  France 
ou  vous  etes  tombes  pour  la  plus  belle  cause !  '  " 

There  is  a  still  more  fundamental  motive  dwelling 
in  the  bosom  of  the  student.  It  is  hard  to  interpret 
this  motive.  It  should  not  be  called  the  longing  for 
adventure.  Such  a  motive  is  more  or  less  unworthy. 
It  may  be  called  the  sense  of  duty.  It  is  rather  more 
than  an  imperative.  It  may  be  called  spiritual  un- 
rest, but  it  is  more  than  an  emotion.  It  is  rather  a 
yearning  for  life, —  for  life  fuller,  richer,  more  com- 

1  Boston  Herald,  May  21st,  1898. 


10     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

nianding:,  more  consuming.  It  is  a  feeling  that  one 
must  have  experience  —  an  experience  that  touches 
all  life,  even  the  universal  and  the  eternal.  It  is 
the  cosmic  sense,  urging  and  moving  in  the  young 
soul.  To  this  motive  Alan  Seeger  gave  voice: 
"  Suddenly  the  world  is  up  in  arms.  All  mankind 
takes  sides.  The  same  faith  that  made  him  sur- 
render himself  to  the  impulses  of  normal  living  and 
of  love,  force  him  now  to  make  himself  the  instru- 
ment through  which  a  greater  force  works  out  its  in- 
scrutable ends  through  the  impulses  of  terror  and 
repulsion.  And  with  no  less  a  sense  of  moving  in 
harmony  with  a  universe  where  masses  are  in  con- 
tinual conflict  and  new  combinations  are  engendered 
out  of  eternal  collisions,  he  shoulders  arms  and 
marches  forth  with  haste."  ^ 

Akin  to  this  cosmic  sense  is  shown  the  spirit  of 
supreme  sacrifice  and  of  moral  passion,  which  be- 
longs to  all  youth,  but  belongs  especially  to  the  stu- 
dent. This  sense  of  sacrifice  and  of  passion  has 
been  peculiarly  significant  in  this  war.  The  break- 
ing and  crushing  of  the  morals  and  the  morale  of 
life  by  Germany  awakened  the  keenest  indignation 
in  the  soldier  student.  He  did  not  count  the  cost. 
He  felt  somewhat  as  Pascal  says  of  Jesus  Christ  on 
the  cross :  "  I  must  add  my  wounds  to  his."  The 
1  Letter:     The  New  Republic,  22nd  May,  1915. 


Motives  for  Entering  the  Service  11 

crusader  is  the  youth,  and  he  rejoices  to  venture  all. 

"  For  my  purpose  holds 
To  sail  beyond  the  sunset,  and  the  baths 
Of  all  the  Western  Stars,  until  I  die." 

In  deep  contrast  to  such  a  worthy  motive,  two 
more  and  very  personal  conditions  emerge.  The 
student  is  free  from  domestic  responsibility  and  from 
vocational  engagements.  Neither  wife  nor  child 
looks  to  him  for  daily  bread.  Neither  professional 
duty  nor  industrial  nor  commercial  service  com- 
mands him.  He  is  foot-free.  Indeed,  he  is  in- 
clined to  believe  that  a  military  training  may  prove 
to  be  a  very  acceptable  preparation  for  the  business 
which  he  finally  may  choose. 

In  all  these  motives  and  conditions,  too,  one  fur- 
ther great  movement  is  evident.  It  may  be  called  — 
the  instinct  of  the  spiritual  in  man.  It  is  the  im- 
pulse to  rescue,  to  help,  to  serve.  It  is  a  fundamen- 
tal feeling.  It  is  found  in  every  worthy  bosom.  It 
constitutes  the  gentleman.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  or 
for  argument,  not  a  balancing  of  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages. It  may  not  be  even  a  part  of  that  great 
Anglo-Saxon  service,  which  we  denominate  duty. 
Why  did  you  enlist  ?  —  Why  shouldn't  I  enlist  ?  — 
is  the  questioning  answer  —  One  cannot  do  other. 
Such  feelings  are  instinctive  in  all  good  men,  but 


12      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

are  especially  instinctive  in  the  bosom  of  the  college 
man. 

For  as  an  Oxford  don  says :  "  The  beauty  of  life 
lies  not  in  living,  nor  in  health  and  vigor  of  body, 
nor  in  the  flash  and  speed  of  the  mind,  but  in  living 
with  a  noble  energy,  which  enlists  and  mobilizes  the 
noble  nature  for  the  doing  of  noble  things.  To  rise 
to  the  measure  of  a  man  and  to  attain  to  the  just 
beauty  of  a  full  humanity  consists  in  gaining  con- 
version of  the  soul  and  in  entering  the  service  of 
mankind.  He  who  has  turned  his  eyes  to  an  ideal 
good  which  is  more  worth  while  than  life  itself  has 
found  life;  for  he  has  become  a  living  soul,  con- 
verted to  the  light.  He  who  has  entered  the 
service  of  mankind  in  order  to  realize  among  men 
and  for  men  the  ideal  good  which  he  has  seen 
has  entered  into  the  only  perfect  joy  of  living;  for 
he  has  hid  his  life  with  that  of  his  fellows  in  the 
common  life  which  is  the  only  true  life  of  man."  ^ 

In  all  these  lifting  and  moving  sentiments  there 
were  present  two  other  feelings  deserving  recogni- 
tion. Students  were  inclined  to  depreciate  their  own 
place  and  function.  They  did  not  wish  to  be  "  made 
much  of."  They  despised  eulogy.  They  couldn't 
bear  laudation,  as  if  their  acts  were  unusual.     They 

1 "  Mothers  and  Sons  in  War  Time,"  by  Ernest  Barker, 
pages  4,  5. 


Motives  for  Entering  the  Service  13 

had  wit  and  humor  to  realize  their  conditions.  In 
serious  hours  too  they  thought  of  being  afraid  of 
death  as  death.  They  did  have  a  questioning 
whether  when  the  crisis  of  a  great  command  might 
be  heard,  they  would  prove  true.  It  was  the  quick- 
ening question  that  belongs  to  a  gentleman.  It  was 
inevitable.  The  answer,  too,  was  equally  inevitable. 
They  met  their  supreme  ordeal  without  flinching. 
They  died  with  a  cheer. 

American  college  men,  students  and  graduates, 
moreover,  have  entered  every  war  which  their  coun- 
try has  fought.  Such  enrollment  belongs  to  every 
nation.  Tablets  are  placed  on  the  walls  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Germany,  giving  the  names  of  their  sons 
who  fell  in  the  War  of  1870.  Tablets  are  also  set 
up  in  the  universities  of  Italy,  commemorating  the 
students  who  fought  two  generations  ago  for  their 
once  sadly  divided,  now  nobly  united,  land.  The 
spirit  which  is  felt  and  the  words  which  are  heard 
in  American  colleges  in  the  World  War,  were  also 
manifest  in  the  Civil  War  of  the  United,  and  the 
Confederate,  States.  The  passion  of  all  college 
youth  for  native  land  and  for  man  seems  to  be  one  — 
lasting  as  life,  broad  as  the  world,  deep  as  the  deepest 
human  instincts  and  emotions,  indivisible  as  human- 
ity itself. 


II 


BEFORE    THE    ENTRAJTOE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Under  the  spell  of  such  motives,  college  men,  both 
graduate  and  undergraduate,  entered  and  served  in 
the  war.  Their  service  began  at  the  very  beginning. 
The  kind  of  service,  offered  from  August  and  Sep- 
tember of  1914  up  to  the  month  of  April,  1917,  was, 
of  course,  in  many  respects  unlike  that  given  after 
the  entrance  of  the  United  States.  The  earlier  serv- 
ice was  manifestly  far  less  important  and  far  less 
general.  It  was,  however,  of  diverse  sorts,  and  also 
it  took  on  many  elements  of  the  picturesque  as  well 
as  of  the  heroic. 

The  kinds  of  particular  service  were  no  less  than 
five  in  number.  These  five  were  the  American  Vol- 
unteer Motor  Ambulance  Corps,  the  American  Ambu- 
lance Hospital  in  Paris,  Hospital  Units  outside  of 
Paris  like  that  of  or  for  Servia,  the  American  Dis- 
tributing Service,  and,  most  picturesque  of  all,  the 
Foreign  Legion.  There  were,  in  addition,  not  a  few 
services  of  miscellaneous,  and  even  individualistic, 
character.     The    United    States    embassies,    aiding 

14 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States     15 

American  citizens'  relief  committees,  serving  in  can- 
teens, giving  help  in  relief  work  in  Belgium  and 
France,  represent  the  more  important  of  such  miscel- 
laneous and  individual  work. 

The  American  Volunteer  Motor  Ambulance  Corps 
was  formed  and  directed  by  Richard  Norton,  son  of 
Charles  Eliot  Norton  of  Harvard.  The  work  of  this 
Corps,  as  described  by  Norton  himself,  in  February, 
1916,  was  of  three  sorts.  One  was  what  he  calls  the 
risky  and  very  hard  work  done  during  a  battle,  in 
rescuing  the  wounded  and  bearing  them  back  to  sta- 
tions where  surgical  attention  could  be  given.  There 
was,  also,  what  Norton  calls,  "  Our  regular  job " : 
"  the  post  duty,  the  daily  going  and  coming  from 
certain  stations  just  back  of  the  line  to  the  hospitals 
with  the  occasional  casualties.  During  the  winter 
months  one  carries  more  sick  and  sorry  than  one 
does  wounded,  but  there  is  a  never-ending  trickle  of 
these  latter.  .  .  .  We  sat  down  for  the  winter,  and 
posts  were  arranged  to  which  the  wounded  are 
brought.  Just  who  picks  out  these  posts  I  have 
never  discovered,  but  the  general  rule  is  that  they 
should  be  as  near  the  actual  fighting  line  as  the  con- 
dition of  the  roads  and  general  safety  permit  the 
cars  to  go.  We  have  served  two  such  posts.  One 
was  all  right,  though,  owing  to  the  mud  which  pre- 
vented the  close  approach  of  our  cars,  the  stretcher 


16     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

bearers  had  a  weary  long  walk  with  their  painful 
burden.  The  other,  however,  was  to  my  mind  most 
quaintly  placed,  as  it  was  on  the  crest  of  a  ridge  and 
in  plain  view  of  the  enemy.  Though  the  doctors' 
tents  and  dug-outs  were  sheltered  by  a  cluster  of 
pines,  the  coming  and  going  of  the  cars  were  per- 
fectly obvious  and  daily  drew  the  fire  of  one  of  the 
enemy  batteries.  ...  At  both  posts  the  men  did 
duty  for  twenty-four  hours  at  a  stretch,  and  had 
tents  pitched  under  the  trees  in  which  they  cooked 
their  picnic  meals  and  took  what  rest  they  could. 
Most  of  the  time  it  rained,  and  it  was  always  cold. 
To  my  way  of  thinking  a  tent  is  a  beastly  thing.  A 
considerable  portion  of  my  life  has  been  passed  in 
them,  and  no  one  can  convince  me  they  are  anything 
but  disgusting.  .  .  .  However,  they  are  better  than 
sitting  in  the  mud,  so  at  the  posts  we  sit  and  get  damp 
till  the  relief  comes,  and  then  hustle  back  to  the  base 
camp,  where  there  are  no  satisfactory  means  of  get- 
ting dry,  but  where  you  mop  yourself  up  and  steam 
over  any  form  of  fire  you  or  your  friends  can  pro- 
duce. You  see,  there  is  not  much  in  that  kind  of  life 
but  plain,  hard,  uncomfortable  work.  So  any  one 
who  thinks  he  is  coming  out  here  to  wander  over  the 
stricken  field  doing  the  Sir  Philip  Sidney  act  to 
friend  and  foe  alike,  protected  from  harm  by  the  mys- 
tical light  of  heroism  playing  about  his  hyacinthine 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      17 

locks,  had  better  stay  home.  This  hero  business  will 
only  win  him  the  Order  of  the  Wooden  Cross.  What 
one  really  does  is  to  look  like  a  tramp  who  has  passed 
the  night  in  a  ditch  and  feels  as  though  he  were  doing 
ten  days  '  hard  '  for  it.  That  is  what  the  ordinary- 
work  is."  ^ 

There  is  a  third  kind  of  work  of  the  Motor  Am- 
bulance Corps  which  Mr.  Norton  calls  "  en  repos." 

"  No  corps  can  go  on  indefinitely  at  the  front. 
The  men  get  worn  out  and  the  cars  get  out  of  order. 
During  the  early  part  of  this  winter  our  cars  stood 
in  the  open  where  the  mud  was  so  bad  that  we  often 
had  to  pull  them  out  in  the  morning  with  the  lorry 
before  we  could  start.  There  was  so  little  water  that 
sometimes  there  was  insufficient  for  the  radiators. 
Under  such  circumstances  cleaning  the  cars  was  en- 
tirely out  of  the  question,  and  any  but  absolutely  es- 
sential repairs  had  to  wait  till  we  could  move  some- 
where else.  When,  finally,  we  were  relieved  by  a 
French  convoy,  only  one-third  of  our  cars  could  go, 
and  several  of  the  men  were  working  on  their 
nerve."  ^ 

The  second  general  form  of  service  lay  in  what 

was  known  as  the  American  Ambulance,  or  Amer- 

1 "  The   Harvard   Volunteers   in    Europe,"   by   Howe,   pages 
193-196. 

2  Ibid.,  pages  196-197. 


18      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

ican  Hospital,  in  Paris.  The  opportunity  for  med- 
ical service  in  Paris  was  opened  in  the  spring  of 
1915.  The  first  medical  unit  to  be  represented  waa 
that  of  Western  Reserve  University  and  of  its  affil- 
iated hospital,  Lakeside,  which  served  from  January 
to  April.  The  Harvard  Medical  School  provided  a 
surgical  unit,  also,  for  three  months  of  this  year. 

Outside  and  beyond  the  most  outstanding  surgical 
service  of  Paris  was  the  service  rendered  in  Servia  in 
the  first  year  of  the  war.  This  contribution,  given 
under  the  American  Red  Cross  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion, and  under  the  leadership  of  Doctor  Richard  P. 
Strong,  Professor  of  Tropical  Medicine  in  the  Har- 
vard Medical  School,  was  of  the  utmost  significance. 
Soon  after  his  arrival,  in  April,  Doctor  Strong  or- 
ganized an  International  Health  Commission  in  or- 
der to  promote  the  enforcement  of  medical  and  surgi- 
cal orders  in  all  parts  of  Servia,  and  also  to  coordi- 
nate the  work  of  the  British,  the  French,  the  RuS' 
sians,  the  Americans,  as  well  as  of  the  Servians,  in 
promoting  the  health  of  the  people.  In  this  work 
were  engaged  public  health  physicians,  sanitary  engi- 
neers, sanitary  inspectors,  and  laboratory  experts  of 
various  types.  To  stamp  out  contagious  diseases, 
and  especially  typhus  fever,  was  the  great  purpose  of 
the  Commission,  and  this  purpose  was  fulfilled  with 
extraordinary  efficiency. 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States     19 

Another  form  of  work  in  which  the  college  men 
had  a  primary  part,  and  which  has  received  little 
mention,  is  the  American  Distributing  Service.  Un- 
der this  general  union,  many  sorts  of  work  were 
done  and  under  different  organizations.  Perhaps 
the  chief  part  of  its  work  was  in  giving  instant  relief 
to  the  most  obvious  necessities  of  French  hospitals. 
Supplies  were  gathered  up,  some  coming  from  Amer- 
ica, and  delivered  at  the  hospitals  according  to  their 
need.  Sorting  out  and  delivering  hospital  socks  and 
slippers,  bales  of  underclothes,  bolts  of  cloth,  surgical 
instruments,  represent  types  of  the  diversity  of  the 
work.  In  the  month  of  August  of  the  year  1915, 
more  than  forty-four  thousand  articles  were  given 
out,  which  included  material  for  operating  rooms,  as 
surgical  instruments,  sterilizing  apparatus,  bandages 
and  linen.  The  hospitals  thus  helped  numbered 
more  than  seven  hundred. 

But  perhaps  the  most  picturesque,  as  certainly  the 
best  known  of  all  these  forms  of  service,  lay  in  the 
Foreign  Legion  of  the  French  Army.  It  was  a  most 
democratic  organization.  A  member  has  written  of 
it,  saying :  — 

"  Many  of  the  men  are  educated,  and  the  very  low- 
est is  of  the  high-class  workman  type.     In  my  room, 

for  instance,  there  are  '  Le  Petit  Pere  U ,'  an 

old  Alsatian,  who  has  already  served  fourteen  years 


20     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

in  tlio  Legion  in  China  and  Morocco;  the  Corporal 

L ,  a  Socialist  well-known  in  his  own  district; 

E ,  a  Swiss  cotton  broker  from  Havre;  D 

C ,   a   newspaper  man,    and   short-story   writer, 

who  will  not  serve  in  the  English  Army  because  his 
family  left  England  in  1745,  with  the  exception  of 
his  father,  who  was  captain  in  the  Royal  Irish  Fusi- 
liers; S ,  a  Fijian  student  at  Oxford,  '  the  blond 

beast'  (Vide  Zarathustra)  ;  von  somebody,  another 
Dane,  very  small  and  young;  B ,  a  Swiss  car- 
penter, born  and  bred  in  the  Alps,  who  sings,  when 
given  a  half  liter  of  canteen  wine,  far  better  than 
most  comic-opera  stars  and  who  at  times  does  the 

ranz-des-vaches  so  that  even  Petit  Pere  U claps; 

the  brigadier  M ,  a  little  Russian,  two  or  three 

Polish  Jews,  nondescript  Belgians,  Greeks,  Rouma- 
nians, etc."  ^ 

In  the  Foreign  Legion  were  found  not  a  few  col- 
lege men  among  whom  Victor  Chapman,  Harvard 
'13,  and  Alan  Seeger,  Harvard  '10,  stand  forth  in 
moving  worthiness, —  both  of  whom  made  the  great 
sacrifice. 

The  number  of  college  graduates  and  undergrad- 
uates who  entered  this  quintette  of  services  was  not 
large.  But  the  spirit,  the  enthusiasm,  the  devotion 
of  those  who  thus  enrolled  themselves  was  of  the 

1  Ibid.,   pages   145-146. 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      21 

highest  and  deepest  character.  It  was  a  service  both 
individual  and  human.  It  was  not  supported  by 
love  of  America  in  the  degree  which  the  later  service 
inspired.  It  was  a  service  rendered  out  of  a  love 
for  humanity  and  in  the  desire  to  be  of  individual 
worth.  The  element  of  camaraderie  was  not  present 
as  it  was  in  the  college  halls  of  the  years  '17  and 
'18.  But  the  sense  of  individual  duty,  privilege, 
devotion,  rose  to  its  highest  red-crested  level.  The 
college  men  of  America  never  showed  themselves 
more  heroic  than  in  services  thus  rendered  in  the 
months  and  years  previous  to  the  first  week  of  April 
of  the  year  1917. 

As  moving  and  inspiring  a  spectacle  as  was  fur- 
nished by  any  set  of  college  men  is  found  in  the 
Rhodes  scholars  who  gave  themselves  to  the  service 
in  Belgium.  About  four  hundred  Americans  have 
availed  themselves  of  Cecil  Rhodes'  foundation,  since 
its  establishment  in  1902,  in  becoming  students  at 
Oxford.  About  three  hundred  of  them  entered  the 
service.  The  beneficence  of  their  presence  and  work 
in  Belgium  in  the  days  of  the  German  occupation  is 
a  part  of  the  great  contribution  which  was  rendered 
under  the  direction  and  inspiration  of  Herbert  Clark 
Hoover.  Mr.  Hoover,  himself  a  graduate  of  Leland 
Stanford  University,  was,  by  reason  of  his  experi- 
ence, as  well  as  because  of  the  highest  personal  quali- 


OQ 


Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 


ties,  abundantly  qualified  to  guide  and  to  inspire  hia 
fellow  graduates  of  American  colleges  who  them- 
selves had  been  at  Oxford.  Of  them  the  great  inter- 
preter of  Belgium,  in  the  years  of  its  Inferno,  Mr. 
Brand  Whitlock,  has  said: 

"  They  came  as  volunteers,  to  work  for  no  other  re- 
ward than  the  satisfaction  of  helping  in  a  great  human- 
itarian cause.  The  work  never  could  have  been  done 
without  them,  or  half  so  well  by  men  who  had  been 
paid  for  their  labor.  I  suppose  the  world  has  never 
seen  anything  quite  like  their  devotion;  it  used  to 
amuse,  when  it  did  not  exasperate,  us,  to  see  the  Ger- 
mans so  mystified  by  it ;  they  could  not  understand  it, 
and  were  always  trying  to  find  out  the  real  reason  for 
their  being  there.  ...  It  was,  in  fact,  as  fine  an  exam- 
ple of  idealism  —  American  idealism  —  as,  in  its  ulti- 
mate organization  and  direct  management,  it  proved  to 
be  of  American  enterprise  and  efficiency.  The  young 
men  were  under  the  heaviest  adjurations  from  all  of  us 
to  maintain  a  strict  neutrality,  and  this  they  all  did. 
Not  one  of  them  was  ever  guilty  of  an  indiscretion,  not 
one  of  them  ever  brought  dishonor  upon  the  work, 
or  upon  their  nation,  or  its  flag,  or  upon  the  various 
universities  whose  honor  they  held  in  their  keeping 
and  on  which  they  reflected  such  credit."  ^ 

1 "  Belgium,"  by  Brand  Whitlock,  United  States  Minister  to 
Belgium,  I.,  pages  409-410. 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      23 

Men  of  such  character,  of  course,  would  be  secured 
under  the  conditions  laid  down  by  Mr.  Rhodes'  trus- 
tees. In  the  first  circular  issued  by  the  trustees,  it 
was  said  that  they  desired  "  as  Scholars  students  of 
power  and  promise,  and  representative  types  of  the 
manliness,  culture,  and  character  of  the  communities 
from  which  they  come."  ^ 

Such  devotions,  more  individual  than  institutional, 
were  contemporaneous  with  movements  which  were 
rather  institutional  than  individualistic. 

A  significant  development  of  the  last  and  of  the 
present  generation  of  academic  life  lies  in  the  associa- 
tion and  cooperation  of  the  colleges  and  universities. 
This  academic  development  is  a  microcosm  of  what 
has  occurred  in  the  nations  of  the  world.  Among 
these  educational  societies  are  found  the  Association 
of  State  Universities,  the  Association  of  American 
Universities,  the  Association  of  American  Colleges, 
the  Association  of  Urban  Universities,  the  American 
Association  of  University  Professors,  the  Association 
of  American  Law  Schools,  the  Association  of  Ameri- 
can Medical  Colleges,  and  the  American  Association 
of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations. 

These  associations, —  a  list  to  which,  long  as  it  is, 
several  others  might  fittingly  be  added, —  created  a 
spirit  of  co-working  and  of  inter-institutional  service 

i"The  Rhodes  Scholarships,"  by  Parkin,  page  114. 


24     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

which,  ill  the  three  years  preceding  the  American 
declaration  of  war,  were  devoted  to  the  welfare  of 
the  nation  and  of  the  world.  The  common  devotion 
tlius  secured  in  and  through  the  colleges  for  the  na- 
tion and  for  the  nations  becomes  the  more  marked 
when  seen  in  contrast  with  the  lack  of  academic  co- 
operation prevailing  in  the  period  of  the  Civil  War. 
In  that  period  each  college  gave  richest  service  but 
gave  it  largely  as  an  individual  unit  of  society. 

The  various  organizations  and  agencies,  new  and 
old,  established  for  making  the  services  of  the  col- 
leges effective  in  the  great  w^ar  were  both  general  and 
special,  transient  and  lasting.  Some  of  them  were 
clearing  houses  of  activities,  while  others  were  di- 
rectly operating  forces. 

In  point  of  time  the  first  of  these  organizations  was 
the  Intercollegiate  Intelligence  Bureau.  This  Bu- 
reau was  an  agency  set  up  for  the  purpose  of  assign- 
ing places  in  the  government  service  to  college  men 
and  women.  With  headquarters  in  Washington,  its 
chief  officer  and,  in  a  sense,  its  founder,  was  Dean 
William  McClellan  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. On  its  establishment  in  February,  1917, 
Secretary  Baker  said  that  the  organization  was  "  a 
gift  to  the  nation,  a  gift  of  preparedness,  alike  for 
service  in  war  and  in  peace."  In  making  a  report 
reviewing  the  work,  Dean  McClellan  wrote : — "  We 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      25 

have  spent  a  busy,  and,  we  believe,  a  useful  year  in 
trying  to  fulfill  our  obligations  and  living  up  to  our 
ideals.  We  have  organized  branches  at  about  two 
hundred  colleges,  technical  and  agricultural  schools 
throughout  the  country  and  city  committees,  com- 
posed of  representative  gradviates,  in  the  larger  cen- 
ters of  the  Nation.  Using  entirely  a  decentral- 
ized system  and  responding  to  the  definite 
calls  made  upon  them  by  our  Division  of  Serv- 
ice Calls  at  our  ofiice  here,  these  branches  have 
had  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  about  four 
thousand  of  the  men  and  women  nominated  by  them 
have  been  appointed  to  positions  of  responsibility  in 
the  service  of  the  National  Government.  All  of 
these  positions  called  for  highly  trained  specialists 
in  professional  and  technical  fields.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, about  50  per  cent,  of  them  represented  commis- 
sions in  the  Army  or  Navy.  Every  nomination  ac- 
cepted and  also  the  many  nominations  made  in  good 
faith  which  did  not  result  in  appointments,  were 
thoroughly  investigated  before  being  sent  in  both  by 
our  branches  and  by  us,  and  we  have  the  satisfaction 
of  sincerely  believing  that  no  finer  body  of  loyal  cit- 
izens can  be  found  than  the  men  who  are  now  serving 
the  country  and  who  found  their  proper  places 
through  the  agency  of  this  Bureau." 

The  second  event  in  the  earlier  academic  history 


26      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

was  found  in  a  conference  held  in  Washington  on 
May  fifth  of  the  same  year  of  1917.  In  Continental 
Hall  on  that  day,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  repre- 
sentatives of  the  leading  colleges  and  universities  as- 
sembled. They  were  called  together  by  President 
Hollis  Godfrey,  of  the  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia, 
serving  as  chairman  of  one  of  the  committees  of  the 
Advisory  Commission  of  the  Council  of  National  De- 
fense. This  conference,  after  prolonged  and  warm 
discussion,  issued  a  statement  which  voiced  the  feel- 
ing of  the  college  ofiicers  of  that  critical  time.  The 
members  declared  that  their  single  thought  and  desire 
were  to  summon  their  every  resource  and  to  give  the 
nation,  without  reservation,  all  their  facilities,  dedi- 
cating themselves  to  the  supreme  ideals  out  of  which 
both  their  institutions  and  the  nation  were  bom.  In 
particular  they  affirmed  that  they  were  willing  to 
change  courses  of  studies  and  their  calendar-year  in 
such  ways  as  would  most  effectively  fill  the  needs  of 
the  nation.  They  asked  that  plans  be  made  and 
published  for  the  closest  cooperation  between  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  universities.  They  expressed  a 
wish  for  information  regarding  the  methods  of  the 
government  in  carrying  on  the  war  in  order  that  their 
own  forces  might  be  the  more  thoroughly  mobilized. 
They  also  intimated  a  desire  to  know  the  methods 
which  are  adopted  by  colleges  and  universities  of  the 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States     27 

allied  countries  in  meeting  the  conditions  of  the  war. 
This  conference  was  of  the  utmost  value  in  uniting, 
solidifying  and  energizing  college  sentiment  respect- 
ing the  seriousness  of  the  condition  and  the  rights 
and  the  duties  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  war. 

A  third  organization  relating  to  the  colleges  bore 
the  name  of  the  National  Advisory  Committee  for 
Aeronautics.  This  organization  was  in  its  constitu- 
tion in  part  only  academic.  But  in  it  six  outstand- 
ing institutions,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, Cornell  University,  Ohio  State  University,  Uni- 
versity of  Texas,  University  of  Illinois,  and  Uni- 
versity of  California,  had  the  prevailing  and  controll- 
ing interest.  In  and  through  these  schools  were 
trained  aviators  to  the  number,  at  times,  of  about  a 
thousand  a  month.  As  aviation  is  primarily  a  sci- 
entific work  it  was  fitting  that  those  following  this  art 
should  be  trained  in  schools  of  science. 

A  fourth  item  in  this  academic  martial  interpreta- 
tion related  to  the  War  Department  Committee  on 
Classification  of  Personnel  in  the  Army.  This  com- 
mittee, organized  largely  by  Professor  Walter  Dill 
Scott  of  Northwestern  University,  had  for  its  pur- 
pose the  classification  of  men  of  draft  age  and  con- 
dition on  the  basis  of  education  and  other  allied  qual- 
ities.    This  body  made  a  distinct  contribution   in 


28     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

impressing  upon  the  governmental  authorities  the 
value  of  scientific  training  as  a  military  factor.  In 
creating  this  factor  it  was  made  plain  that  the  ef- 
ficienc}^  of  the  scientific  and  other  schools  in  train- 
ing graduates  and  undergraduates  as  officers,  was 
most  important. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  a  further  educa- 
tional force  although  this  force  belonged  less  to  the 
higher  learning  than  did  several  other  agencies.  It 
was  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 
This  Board,  originally  organized  under  the  Smith- 
Hughes  act,  was  concerned  largely  with  the  training 
of  mechanics  and  technicians. 

The  sixth  agency,  and  one  of  the  more  important, 
was  the  American  Council  on  Education.  The 
American  Council  on  Education  represented  some 
fifteen  educational  Associations  of  the  United  States, 
and  was  formed  primarily  to  aid  the  government  in 
meeting  certain  needs  of  the  war  conditions.  It  also 
served  to  unite  these  educational  bodies  in  a  com- 
mon purpose  and  to  interpret  the  aims  and  the  meth- 
ods of  each  to  the  other,  !N"ot  only  was  a  better  un- 
derstanding thus  established  between  the  Associa- 
tions themselves,  but  the  government  was  enabled  to 
use  efficiently  an  instrument  which  proved  of  inval- 
uable service.     The  Associations,  too,  were  benefited 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      29 

by  a  leadership,  the  lack  of  which,  in  their  relation 
to  national  work,  had  been  keenly  felt. 

The  purpose  of  the  American  Council  on  Educa- 
tion, or  the  Emergency  Council  on  Education,  is  best 
stated  in  a  paragraph  taken  from  one  of  its  own 
records : 

"  To  place  the  educational  resources  of  the  country 
more  completely  at  the  service  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment and  its  departments,  to  the  end  that,  through 
an  understanding  cooperation,  the  patriotic  services 
of  the  public  schools,  colleges  and  universities  may 
be  augmented;  that  a  continuous  supply  of  educated 
men  may  be  maintained ;  and  greater  effectiveness  in 
meeting  the  educational  problems  arising  during  and 
following  the  war  may  be  secured." 

The  American  Council  on  Education  had  charge  of 
the  Publicity  Campaign  for  the  Students'  Army 
Training  Corps.  Directors  were  appointed  in  every 
state,  the  cooperation  of  all  colleges,  universities,  pub- 
lic schools,  and  other  institutions  and  organizations, 
was  sought,  a  great  amount  of  "  literature  "  was  is- 
sued, and  a  large  correspondence  carried  on. 

Because  of  the  urgent  need  of  nurses,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Surgeon  General  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, the  Council  took  upon  itself  the  duty  of  ar- 
ranging for  courses  of  twelve  weeks'  duration,  for 


30      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

the  preliminary  training  of  nurses  in  colleges  and 
universities.  So  well  did  the  Council  succeed  in  this 
task  that,  at  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  over  fifty 
institutions  had  pledged  to  offer  such  courses.  A 
campaign,  too,  had  been  arranged  to  secure  women 
of  essential  fitness  for  nursing, —  ten  thousand  of 
whom  the  Council  had  promised  to  obtain  and  to 
have  their  training  completed  before  the  1st  of  July, 
1919. 

Through  its  efforts  scholarships  for  French  women, 
scholarships  for  invalided  French  men,  and  for  Rus- 
sian soldiers  were  established.  Over  two  hundred 
French  women,  under  its  auspices,  came  to  the 
United  States  to  enter  its  colleges  and  universi- 
ties,—  the  college  fees  of  whom  were  met  by  the  in- 
stitutions receiving  them.  Forty  invalided  French 
men  were  brought  to  this  country  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  obtaining  in  the  case  of  the  women. 

The  Council  had  charge  of  the  visits  to  the  United 
States  of  the  British  Educational  Mission  and  of  the 
French  Educational  Mission. 

These  facts  indicate  only  a  few  of  the  great  services 
given  by  the  American  Council  on  Education.  That 
its  work  will  be  of  vital  importance  in  the  future  is 
assured.  It  already  has  outlined  for  itself  a  course 
of  activities  which  include  International  Educational 
Relations,  Educational  Information  and  Standards, 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      31 

Educational  Policy  and  Organization,  Education  for 
Citizenship,  and  the  Training  of  Women  for  Public 
Service. 

The  N^ational  Research  Council  was  fittingly 
named  as  an  agency  of  the  higher  military  education. 

It  was  established  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
the  year  1916,  as  a  measure  of  preparedness  in  the 
event  of  war.  In  1918,  the  Council  was  taken  over 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and,  after  the 
armistice,  in  the  spring  of  1919  it  was  reorganized  as 
a  permanent  institution. 

In  an  executive  order  of  the  President  of  the  11th 
of  May,  1918,  its  work  was  made  to  have  a  six-fold 
relation:  (1)  the  quickening  of  research  in  the  sci- 
ences and  in  their  application  to  the  useful  arts,  in 
order  to  increase  knowledge,  to  strengthen  national 
defense,  and  to  contribute  in  other  ways  to  the  public 
welfare;  (2)  the  surveying  of  the  larger  possibilities 
of  science,  the  forming  of  comprehensive  projects  of 
research,  the  developing  of  proper  means  for  utilizing 
scientific  and  technical  resources  of  the  country  in 
conducting  these  projects;  (3)  the  promotion  of  co- 
operation in  research,  at  home  and  abroad,  to  secure 
concentration  of  effort,  and  so  on,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  to  encourage  individual  initiative  as  being  of 
fundamental  importance  to  the  advancement  of  sci- 
ence ;  (4)  to  bring  American  and  foreign  investigators 


32      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

into  active  cooperation  with  the  scientific  and  tech- 
nical service  of  the  War  and  Navy  Departments,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  civil  branches  of  the  Government ; 
(5)  to  call  the  attention  of  scientific  and  technical 
investigators  to  the  importance  of  military  and  indus- 
trial problems  in  connection  with  the  war,  and  to  the 
furthering  of  the  solution  of  these  problems  by  spe- 
cific researches ;  (6)  the  gathering  and  collating  of  all 
scientific  and  technical  information,  in  cooperation 
with  Governmental  and  other  agencies,  rendering 
such  information  available  to  duly  accredited  per- 
sons.^ 

Associated  in  the  Council  were  representatives  of 
national  scientific  and  technical  societies,  of  the 
United  States  Government,  of  other  research  organ- 
izations, and  of  people  specially  trained,  and  by  na- 
ture fitted,  to  promote  its  plans  and  purposes. 

The  Council  was   and  is  composed  of  a  central 

governing  body,  an  Executive  Board,  and  of  thirteen 

divisions.     These    thirteen    divisions    were    divided 

into  two  classes,  Divisions  of  General  Relations  and 

Divisions  of  Science  and   Technology.     Under  the 

first  heading  were  included  the  Government  Division, 

the  Division  of  Foreign  Relations,  the  Division  of 

1  Announcement  of  the  Division  of  Educational  Relations, 
The  National  Research  Council,  published  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  August  15,  1919, 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States      33 

States  Relations,  the  Division  of  Educational  Rela- 
tions, the  Division  of  Industrial  Relations  and  the 
Research  Information  Service.  In  the  Divisions  of 
Science  and  Technology  were  the  Division  of  Physi- 
cal Science,  the  Division  of  Engineering,  the  Divi- 
sion of  Chemistry  and  Chemical  Technology,  the  Di- 
vision of  Geology  and  Geography,  the  Division  of 
Medical  Sciences,  the  Division  of  Biology  and  Agri- 
culture, and  the  Division  of  Anthropology  and  Psy- 
chology. The  men  forming  each  division  were 
chosen  from  every  field  of  knowledge  and  training 
which  fitted  them  for  the  special  work. 

The  Division  of  Educational  Relations  made  a 
survey  of  all  American  educational  institutions  and 
of  all  educational  conditions  in  general,  in  America, 
to  learn  of  the  possibilities  for  scientific  research,  and 
to  encourage,  to  inspire  and  to  train  men  having  the 
proper  qualifications  for  this  most  important  service. 
It  was  and  is  the  aim  of  the  Council  to  cooperate 
with  the  universities  in  establishing  favorable  condi- 
tions, and  in  seeking  out  and  stimulating  men  to  un- 
dertake scientific  research. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  these  diverse 
agencies  and  institutions  was  the  organization  known 
as  the  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training. 
The  nature  of  this  agency  is  well  indicated  in  a  letter 
of  the  Secretary  of  War  written  February  20,  1918, 


34      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

aud  addressed  to  the  presidents  of  educational  insti- 
tutions : — 

"  The  exigencies  of  the  War  have  emphasized  very 
strongly  the  value  of  the  educational  institutions  of 
the  nation  in  connection  with  our  military  effort. 
The  schools  and  colleges  of  the  country  have  with  ad- 
mirable spirit  placed  their  resources  at  the  disposal 
of  the  War  Department  and  other  branches  of  the 
Government.  Much  splendid  work  has  already  been 
done  in  training  men  for  the  Army,  for  example  — 
in  the  Reserve  Officers'  Training  Corps,  the  Aviation 
Ground  Schools,  the  Ordnance  Stores  courses  and  in 
the  training  of  various  kinds  of  specialists. 

"  The  desirability  of  having  a  single  agency  in  the 
War  Department  to  deal  with  the  many  problems  of 
education  and  training  which  continually  arise  has 
been  made  evident.  For  the  purpose  of  organizing 
and  coordinating  all  of  the  educational  resources  of 
the  country  with  relation  to  the  needs  of  the  Army, 
I  have,  therefore,  appointed  a  new  committee  of  the 
General  Staff  to  be  known  as  the  '  Committee  on  Ed- 
ucation and  Special  Training.'  A  copy  of  the  Gen- 
eral Order  naming  this  committee  and  defining  its 
functions  is  enclosed.  It  will  be  the  function  of  this 
committee  to  represent  the  War  Department  in  its 
relations  with  the  educational  institutions  of  the 
country   and   to   develop   and   standardize   policies 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States     35 

as  between  the  schools  and  colleges  and  the  War  De- 
partment. 

"  The  war  has  developed  a  demand  for  large  num- 
bers of  technically  trained  men.  Until  recently  this 
demand  has  been  felt  especially  for  men  of  advanced 
training.  Now,  however,  it  extends  to  men  with  ele- 
mentary training,  as  mechanics  of  various  kinds.  In 
order  to  avoid  unnecessary  disturbance  to  essential 
industries  through  withdrawal  of  skilled  men  an 
effort  will  be  made  to  give  large  numbers  of  men 
entering  the  service  intensive  elementary  training 
along  vocational  lines.  In  the  task  of  training  these 
men  the  schools  and  colleges  can  be  of  the  greatest 
assistance.  It  will  be  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the 
Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training  to 
formulate  definite  plans  in  cooperation  with  schools 
and  colleges  for  training  these  men." 

Under  this  order  were  inaugurated  various  meth- 
ods for  the  training  of  mechanics  and  technicians,  but 
in  particular  and  more  important  for  the  present  pur- 
pose was  thus  established  what  is  historically  the  most 
unique  development  of  the  martial  academic  life  — 
the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps.  To  this  organ- 
ization a  following  chapter  is  devoted. 

In  the  paragraphs  that  have  been  concerned  with 
these  eight  forces  and  agencies  the  writer  has  yet  not 
forgotten  the  Reserve  Officers'  Training  Corps.     The 


nC)     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Reserve  Officers'  Traininc:  Corps  was  established  in 
about  one-third  of  all  the  colleges  and  universities. 
A  dire  need  of  the  American  Army  was  of  properly 
trained  officers.  To  the  colleges  the  government 
turned  for  the  filling  of  this  need.  Among  the  gen- 
eral principles  noted  in  the  Act  of  June  3,  1916  is: 
"  It  should  be  the  aim  of  every  educational  institu- 
tion to  maintain  one  or  more  units  of  the  Reserve 
Officers'  Training  Corps  in  order  that  in  time  of  na- 
tional emergency  there  may  be  a  sufficient  number  of 
educated  men,  trained  in  military  science  and  tactics, 
to  officer  and  lead  intelligently  the  units  of  the  large 
armies  upon  which  the  safety  of  the  country  will  de- 
pend. The  extent  to  which  this  object  is  accom- 
plished wull  be  the  measure  of  the  success  of  the  Re- 
serve Officers'  Training  Corps."  In  carrying  out 
these  principles  a  thorough  course  of  training  was  or- 
ganized which  included  both  the  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical parts  of  the  making  of  a  soldier.  The  course  of 
study  embodied  topics  as  remote  and  diverse  as  the 
international  relations  of  America  from  the  day  of 
Columbus  to  the  present  day,  the  intimate  relation- 
ship between  the  statesman  and  the  soldier,  and  train- 
ing in  horsemanship  and  target  practice.  The  gen- 
eral course  was  comprehensive  of  military  education, 
uniting  many  and  diverse  subjects. 

The  education  that  was  thus  given  for  a  period  of 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States     37 

two  years  in  certain  colleges  proved  to  be  of  gi-eat 
worth  in  the  subsequent  training  of  the  camp  and  in 
the  active  operations  of  the  field.  Merged  for  a  time 
in  the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps,  the  Keserve 
Officers'  Training  Corps  was  reestablished  soon  after 
the  demobilization  under  authority  of  an  act  of  the 
twenty-third  of  November,  1918.  The  subsequent 
value  in  times  of  peace  of  military  training  in  the 
colleges  belongs  to  a  later  part  of  academic  history. 

As  one  considers  the  list  of  organizations  founded 
by,  for  or  among  the  colleges  and  universities  sev- 
eral reflections  emerge. 

The  first  remark  concerns  the  diversity  of  function 
rendered  by  these  academic  forces.  This  diversity 
extended  from  the  training  of  officers  and  of  privates 
for  military,  naval,  and  aerial  service  to  the  discov- 
ery and  publication  of  knowledge,  from  the  hearten- 
ing of  professors  and  students  in  the  individual  col- 
lege to  the  mobilizing  of  all  the  forces,  intellectual 
and  administrative,  athletic  and  social,  of  all  colleges 
and  universities.  The  second  remark  concerns  the 
importance  of  these  diverse  functions  in  a  nation 
which,  by  history,  tradition,  and  preference,  is  a  non- 
military  power.  It  was  to  the  men  of  liberal  educa- 
tion and  association  that  the  government  turned  for 
material  for  counselors,  for  leaders  and  for  officers. 
West  Point  and  Annapolis  were,  of  course,  gi-eat  re- 


38      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

sources.  But  it  was  recognized  that  the  material  for 
officers  furnished  by  the  colleges  was,  in  many  re- 
spects, quite  as  adequate  as  that  offered  by  these  spe- 
cial schools.  Liberal  learning  was  again  proved  to 
be  a  first-rate  foundation  and  force  for  technical 
training  and  for  military  efficiency. 

It  is  also  plain,  in  the  third  place,  that  the  divers- 
ity of  these  functions  and  the  energy  thus  employed 
sprang  out  of  the  desire  and  the  power  of  the  college 
to  do  its  utmost  for  the  welfare  of  the  nation  and 
of  humanity  in  the  great  crisis.  Trustees,  teachers, 
students,  recognized  that  the  supreme  and  fundamen- 
tal purposes  of  the  higher  education, —  purposes  in- 
carnated in  its  own  history, —  were  at  stake.  They 
were  therefore  prepared  and  quickened  to  give  their 
all. 

A  fourth  reflection  is  found  in  the  pleasant  judg- 
ment that  in  this  variety  of  services,  services  not  in- 
frequently crossing  each  other  in  methods  and  means, 
occurred  a  smaller  waste  of  force,  both  material  and 
human,  than  would  easily  be  believed  possible. 
There  was  so  much  to  do,  so  few  to  do  the  much,  the 
time  was  so  short,  and  the  emergency  so  critical,  that 
the  temptation  to  waste,  to  jealousy,  or  to  inefficiency, 
was  slight.  If  one  bureau  found  itself  superfluous, 
it  could  easily  disband  or  change  its  function,  trans- 
ferring to  another  agency  its  special  duty.     Often 


Before  the  Entrance  of  the  United  States     39 

the  very  success  of  a  board  promoted  its  dissolution. 
The  history  of  the  war  could  in  a  sense  be  measured 
by  the  making  and  the  unmaking  of  the  forces  which 
had  accomplished  their  individual  tasks. 


Ill 


FINANCIAL    RELATIONS    OF    THE    COLLEGES 

Throughout  the  academic  year  of  1916-17,  the 
colleges  and  universities  were  in  a  condition  of  un- 
certainty. The  world  crisis  betokened  a  crisis  aca- 
demic. This  uncertainty  and  critical  condition 
showed  itself  in  manifold  forms.  !No  form  was  more 
insistent,  or  more  alarming,  than  that  relating  to 
income  and  to  the  number  of  students  attending  as 
a  basis  of  income.  The  picture  which  the  academic 
authorities  were  obliged  to  present  to  themselves  in 
the  year  1916-17  regarding  finance  was  of  extreme 
significance.  The  picture  was  composed  of  both  fact 
and  inference,  of  general  truth  and  of  its  immediate 
application. 

The  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States 
possess  several  sources  of  income.  One  of  the  more 
natural  and  normal  is  found  in  the  fees  paid  by  the 
students  for  instruction.  One  source,  also  natural 
and  normal,  is  the  income  from  endowment  —  en- 
dowment which  is  the  result  of  gift  or  of  bequest,  and 

is  invested  usually  in  good  bonds  and  first-rate  stocks. 

40 


Financial  Relations  of  the  Colleges         41 

In  certain  institutions  the  endowment  is  invested  at 
least  in  part  in  revenue-producing  real  estate. 

In  addition  to  these  three  sources,  certain  institu- 
tions receive  special  grants  or  gifts.  The  State  uni- 
versities are  the  beneficiaries  of  their  respective  Com- 
monwealths and  are  largely  supported  by  grants 
made,  annually  or  biennially,  by  special  act  or  gen- 
eral statutes  by  the  Legislature.  Certain  municipal 
universities,  likewise,  are  the  beneficiaries  of  the  tax- 
duplicate  of  their  respective  cities.  Some  denomina- 
tional colleges  are  the  recipients,  too,  of  donations 
from  the  churches  of  which  they  are  a  part,  more  or 
less  integral.  It  is  also  further  to  be  noted  that  prac- 
tically all  institutions  find  in  their  trustees  and  other 
friends  benefactors  who,  with  a  certain  degree  of  reg- 
ularity, and  usually  with  great  generosity,  give  to  the 
support  of  the  educational  trust  to  which  they  are 
committed. 

But,  omitting  the  State  universities,  it  is  to  be  said 
that  the  two  first-named  sources,  fees  and  income 
from  endowment,  are  the  principal  reservoirs  whence 
flow  the  support  of  the  typical  American  college  and 
university.  These  two  sources  are,  at  the  present 
time,  about  equal  in  amount,  and  it  is  not  a  little  re- 
markable how  nearly  equal  these  two  amounts  have 
maintained  themselves  in  the  last  four  or  five  dec- 
ades, a  period  which  covers  the  time  in  which  insti- 


42     Colleges  and.  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

tutions  of  the  higher  learning  have  made  the  furthest 
and  most  rapid  progress. 

In  the  year  1876,  49  per  cent,  of  the  income  of  our 
colleges  was  derived  from  fees  paid  by  the  students, 
and  51  per  cent,  from  the  revenue  of  the  endowment. 
Twenty  years  after,  in  1896,  the  proportion  paid  by 
the  students  had  risen  to  60  per  cent.,  and  that  pro- 
vided by  capital  had  fallen  to  40  per  cent.  In  the 
year  1916  the  proportion  had  so  moved  up  and  moved 
dowm  that  it  had  reached  almost  the  middle  point  be- 
tween the  extremes  of  1876  and  1896,  55  per  cent, 
being  paid  by  students  and  45  per  cent,  being  drawn 
from  the  income  of  endowment. 

The  steadiness  of  these  proportions  seems  to  be  all 
the  more  remarkable  when  one  recalls  the  vast  in- 
crease of  these  two  items.  For  in  1876  the  income 
from  productive  funds  was  $2,060,182  and  the  in- 
come from  fees  was  $1,984,811.  In  1896  the  in- 
come from  productive  funds  had  become  $6,191,204 
and  the  income  paid  by  the  students  $9,585,772. 
But  in  1916  the  income  from  productive  funds  had 
lifted  itself  to  $18,246,427  and  the  income  from  stu- 
dents to  the  stupendous  sum  of  $23,603,919.  In 
forty  years  the  increase  in  the  gross  amounts  had,  in 
the  case  of  endowment,  been  multiplied  ninefold  and 
in  the  case  of  fees  about  twelvefold,  and  yet  the  pro- 
portional percentage  had  remained  pretty  steady. 


Financial  Relations  of  the  Colleges         43 

It  is  interesting,  moreover,  to  note  and  to  compare 
the  different  amounts  received  by  colleges  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States  from  students  and 
from  the  annual  endowment  income.  In  the  report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  1916, 
in  the  N"orth  Atlantic  States  about  58  per  cent,  of  the 
income  was  derived  from  students'  fees  and  about  42 
from  the  income  of  endowment.  In  the  South  At- 
lantic States  about  66  per  cent,  of  the  income  was  de- 
rived from  students'  payments  and  34  per  cent,  from 
the  income  of  endowment.  In  the  Southern  Central 
States  about  42  per  cent,  was  derived  from  the  fees 
paid  by  students  and  about  58  per  cent,  from  the  in- 
come of  endowment;  and  in  the  Western  States  45 
per  cent,  was  derived  from  the  fees  paid  by  students 
and  about  55  from  the  income  of  endowment. 

The  facts  regarding  a  few  representative  colleges 
and  universities  regarding  the  proportional  amount 
of  income  drawn  from  students  and  from  endowment 
become  yet  more  interesting  as  the  facts  become  more 
definite.  In  the  year  1916  Harvard  University  drew 
$859,819  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $1,374,677 
from  the  income  of  endowment;  Yale  University, 
$557,941  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $827,254 
from  the  income  of  endowment;  Stanford  Univers- 
ity, $98,273  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $836,527 
from  the  income  of  endowment;  the  University  of 


44      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Chicago,  $708,175  from  the  fees  of  students  and 
$1,094,254  from  the  income  of  endowment;  Prince- 
ton, $221,220  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $267,643 
from  the  income  of  endowment;  Columbia,  $987,559 
from  the  fees  of  students  and  $1,255,619  from  the 
income  of  endo\vment;  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
$125,477  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $322,516 
from  endowment;  Amherst,  $59,957  from  the  fees  of 
students  and  $139,982  from  the  income  of  endow- 
ment; Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology',  $429,- 
963  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $101,280  from  the 
income  of  endowment;  Williams  College,  $95,918 
from  the  fees  of  students  and  $83,156  from  the  in- 
come of  endowment;  Cornell  University  drew  $622,- 
575  from  the  fees  of  students  and  $675,347  from 
the  income  of  endowment. 

In  a  preceding  paragraph  I  deferred  the  consid- 
eration of  the  State  universities  in  respect  to  their 
sources  of  income.  For  these  universities  form  a 
class.  They  are  supported  out  of  the  public  chest. 
They  are  an  integral  part  of  the  system  of  public 
education  of  each  Commonwealth.  The  amounts 
drawn  from  the  fees  of  their  students  and  from  the 
income  of  their  endo^vments  are  usually  relatively 
small.  The  larger  share  of  the  revenue  lies  in  grants 
made  from  the  public  exchequer.  The  sums  thus  de- 
rived form  pleasant  and  inspiring  reading.     In  the 


Financial  Relations  of  the  Colleges  45 

year  1916-17  the  University  of  California  received 
from  students  the  sum  of  $292,102  and  from  the 
State  of  California  for  current  expenses  $1,339,999 ; 
the  University  of  Illinois,  from  students  $236,150 
and  from  the  State  $1,636,500;  the  University  of 
Indiana,  from  students  $41,000  and  from  the  State 
$534,000;  the  University  of  Iowa,  from  students 
$80,498  and  from  the  State  $519,700  ;  the  University 
of  Kansas,  from  students  $99,917  and  from  the  State 
$560,500  ;  the  University  of  Michigan,  from  students 
the  large  sum  of  $457,411  and  from  the  State  $1,- 
026,800 ;  the  University  of  Minnesota,  from  students 
$248,719  and  from  the  State  $1,415,663;  the  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri,  from  students  $114,725  and 
from  the  State  $553,084;  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska, from  students  $85,214  and  from  the  State 
$622,648;  Ohio  State  University,  from  students 
$222,480  and  from  the  State  $868,361;  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  from  students  $452,090  and 
from  the  State  $1,666,723. 

This  record  is  indeed  of  inspiring  force  to  one 
measuring  the  progress  of  a  people  in  tenns  of  intel- 
lectual instruction  or  of  intellectual  power. 

I  have  referred  to  the  crisis  which  the  colleges  were 
facing  in  the  academic  year  of  1916-17.  Certain 
financial  facts  which  helped  to  constitute  this  crisis  I 
have  stated,  and  other  facts  perhaps  need  no  state- 


46      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

ment.  But  one  simple  fact  cannot  be  stated  with  too 
great  emphasis.  It  is  the  fact  of  the  uncertainty  of 
revenue  which  arose  from  the  doubt  attending  the 
number  of  students  who  should  be  enrolled  in  these 
more  than  five  hundred  colleges  and  universities. 
The  revenue  was  uncertain  because  the  students,  who 
normally  would  furnish  about  one-half  of  the  rev- 
enue, formed  a  very  doubtful  quantity.  Taking  the 
whole  country,  there  were  about  twenty  per  cent, 
fewer  S'tudents  in  the  colleges  in  the  year  1917-18 
than  in  1916-17.  The  proportion  differed  in  many 
institutions.  These  differences  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 

Enrollment  Enrollment 
Name  of  College  1917-18         1916-17 

Allegheny   352  403 

Amherst    367  505 

Bates  428  473 

Boston   College 638  675 

Boston  University  2,801  2,525 

Bowdoin   341  434 

Brown   916  1,136 

Bryn   Mawr 484  447 

Clark   115  167 

Colby 360  422 

Colgate    434  581 

Columbia    5,914  6,566 

Cornell    3,859  5,264 

De   Pauw 874  930 

Conn.  College  for  Women 237  200 

Dartmouth  1,020  1,501 


Financial  Relations  of  the  Colleges  4Y 

Enrollment  Enrollment 

Name  of  College  1917-18         1916-17 

Goucher    701  612 

Hamilton    . . .  .i 200  220 

Harvard    2,998  4,976 

Holy  Cross 621  592 

Indiana   University 1,656  2,008 

Iowa  State  University 2,475  2,896 

Knox   603  724 

Lafayette    442  634 

Lehigh 650  805 

Massachusetts  Agricultural 495  695 

Mass.  Institute  of  Tech 1,670  1,937 

Middlebury    288  372 

Mount  Holyoke 850  824 

New  Hampshire 552  653 

New  York  University 6,937  7,476 

Norwich    181  196 

Ohio  State  University 4,187  6,077 

Oberlin    930  1,023 

Pennsylvania  State 2,073  2,352 

Princeton   866  1,555 

Purdue    1,644  2,136 

Eadcliffe  603  675 

Rhode  Island  State 249  336 

Simmons     1,054  1,088 

Smith    1,946  1,917 

Stanford  1,555  1,991 

Syracuse 3,150  4,088 

Trinity    166  246 

Tufts  1,667  1,737 

University  of  California    5,660  6,460 

University  of  Cincinnati   2,068  2,131 

University  of  Illinois   4,851  6,876 


48      Colleges  aiid  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Enrollment  Enrollment 

Name  of   College  1917-18  1916-17 

University  of  Maine   816  1,195 

University  of  Michigan    4,722  5,976 

University  of  Nebraska 3,586  4,362 

University  of  Pennsylvania    6,620  8,832 

University  of  Rochester    526  564 

University  of  Vermont     580  672 

University  of  Virginia    738  1,059 

University  of  Wisconsin    4,098  5,020 

Vassar 1,125  1,102 

Wellesley    1,612  1,572 

Wesleyan    397  504 

Western  Reserve  University 1,417  1,583 

Williams 424  548 

Worcester  Polytechnic    425  539 

Yale     2,129  3,262 

Total    102,353         123,327 

Regarding  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  students 
for  the  year  and  years  following  the  academic  period 
of  1917-18  what  prophet  would  have  dared  to  fore- 
tell? It  seemed  probable  that  the  draft  age  would 
be  lowered  below  twenty-one.  Most  boys  enter  col- 
lege about  the  age  of  eighteen  and  one-half  years. 
One  argued  that  they  would  not  be  called  to  the  col- 
ors. The  increase  of  pay,  moreover,  for  work  was 
compelling.  The  actual  need  of  workers  was  rather 
persuasive  to  the  conscientious  youth.  The  boy  of 
eighteen,  ineligible  for  service,  might  yet  take  the 


Financial  Relations  of  the  Colleges  49 

place  of  a  brother  of  twenty-four  who  had  gone  to 
France.  A  general  dislocation  of  forces  and  values, 
intellectual,  commercial,  industrial,  turned  the  atten- 
tion of  youth  from  forces  academic.  In  times  of 
war  scholarship  is  in  peril  of  being  silent. 

What,  therefore,  were  the  colleges  to  do  in  arrang- 
ing their  scale  of  expenditures  for  the  forthcoming 
year  and  years  ?  That  was  the  question  with  which 
boards  of  trustees,  faculties,  and  academic  executives 
were  deeply  concerned  in  the  closing  months  of  the 
academic  year  of  1917-18. 

In  answer  it  was  said  that  there  were  certain  meth- 
ods of  a  negative  sort  worthy  at  least  of  consideration. 
One  of  the  more  impressive  developments  of  the  last 
decade  and  decades  is  the  vast  increase  in  numbers  of 
the  teaching  staff.  Such  a  development,  in  a  condi- 
tion like  that  obtaining  in  1917-18,  almost  inevitably 
ceases.  With  this  ceasing  also  ceases  a  certain  in- 
crease in  the  expense  side  of  a  budget.  Along  with 
this  limitation  may  arise  a  material  limitation  in 
the  stopping  of  the  erection  of  new  buildings  or  of 
additions  to  equipment.  Of  course,  such  a  negative 
action  is  simply  analogous  to  the  method  pursued  in 
any  business  of  cutting  down  cost. 

A  second  method  of  a  more  or  less  negative  type 
was  found  in  the  lessening  of  expenses  through  the 
enlistments  of  teachers  in  the  national  service.     In 


50     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

not  a  few  colleges  the  names  of  scores  of  men  were 
borne  on  the  official  registers  and  catalogues  as  absent 
on  leave  in  the  national  service.  Some  of  these  men 
received  no,  or  small,  pay  from  the  Government. 
They  were  serving  for  a  "  dollar  a  year."  In  the 
case  of  others  a  certain  moderate  stipend  was  derived 
from  the  Government,  and  from  the  Government 
only.,  In  the  case  of  others  —  a  large  number  —  the 
Governmental  pay  was  augmented  by  an  amount 
made  up  by  the  individual  college  which  still  bore 
the  enlisted  men  upon  its  official  registers.  The  de- 
sign in  this  case  usually  was  to  make  the  pay  derived 
from  both  the  college  and  the  Government  equal  to 
that  formerly  derived  from  the  college.  In  still 
other  instances,  the  amount  of  compensation  was  de- 
termined not  by  uniform  principle  or  method,  but 
by  individual  arrangement  made  between  the  person 
engaged  in  the  national  service  and  his  college. 

A  third  method  lay  in  the  sad  measure  of  cutting 
down  the  salaries  of  the  teaching  staff  and  of  admin- 
istrative officers.  This  measure  was  seldom  suffered. 
Such  a  reduction  would  not  only  have  hurt  most  de- 
serving members  of  a  most  important  profession,  but 
it  would  have  also  damaged  the  profession  in  the  eyes 
and  heart  of  the  public.  Such  a  damage  would  have 
been  nothing  less  than  a  disaster  to  the  whole  com- 
munity as  well  as  to  the  profession  itself.     The  dis- 


Financial  Relations  of  the  Colleges         51 

aster  would  have  become  even  more  disastrous  in 
view  of  the  increasing  cost  of  living. 

A  fourth  method  of  reduction  opened.  It  con- 
sisted in  the  suspension,  for  the  time  being,  of  de- 
partments, either  by  complete  elimination  or  by 
union  with  other  departments.  Latin  and  Greek 
were,  be  it  said  with  deep  regret,  declining  forces  in 
the  academic  curriculum.  Greek  had,  much  to  the 
sorrow  of  a  large  part  of  the  older  thinking  members 
of  the  community,  approached  the  vanishing  point  of 
Hebrew.  Latin  each  year  had  been  commanding  a 
smaller  clientele.  These  two  literatures  and  lan- 
guages might  for  the  hour  be  united  in  their  teaching. 
The  same  method  might  be  pursued  with  French  and 
German,  as  they  had  been  formally  united  in  an  early 
academic  period,  under  the  general  head  of  "  Mod- 
ern Languages."  German  in  the  year  1917-18  was 
elected  by  only  one-half  of  the  number  of  students 
who  chose  it  in  the  year  preceding.  The  number  of 
students  in  French  was  about  doubled.  In  this  rela- 
tion many  small  sections  of  students  —  and  the  num- 
ber of  such  sections  was  and  is  more  numerous  than 
usually  believed  —  might  be  reduced  or  entirely  elim- 
inated. Large  classes  are  not  effective  as  educational 
conditions.  But  for  the  time  being  they  might  be 
suffered. 

Turning  now  to  the  positive  method,  it  was  said 


52      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

that  income  might  bo  increased  through  the  gifts  of 
trustees  and  of  friends,  gifts  made  for  immediate 
expenditures.  Such  a  method  was  and  is  normal. 
Trustees  are  bound  to  protect  and  to  promote  trusts 
entrusted  to  them.  The  war  was  to  end  some  time. 
The  demand  for  educated  men  was  to  be  vast  at  the 
end  of  the  war.  The  colleges  were  to  give  such  men 
to  the  community.  A  vision  of  duty,  of  privilege, 
cannot  but  influence  trustees  to  hold  together  the  com- 
plex and  serious  agencies  which  contribute  to  the 
higher  education.  They  are  ever  to  be  prepared  to 
advance  these  agencies  whenever  the  door  of  opportu- 
nity opens.  They  are  to  be  at  once  conservative  and 
progressive.  They  are  to  conserve,  to  save,  to  cause 
to  endure,  to  hold  fast  all  that  the  past  offers.  They 
are  also  to  go  on,  to  advance  into  new  realms  of  en- 
larging opportunity.  Never  is  a  board  of  trustees 
to  sound  retreat  in  any  institution  which  ought  to 
live. 

This  method  of  raising  money  for  the  immediate 
need  was  better,  in  my  judgment,  inexpressibly  bet- 
ter, than  the  method  of  borrowing  to  meet  emergen- 
cies. The  method  of  borrowing,  I  am  sorry  to  say, 
certain  colleges  did  adopt.  For  debts  are  to  be  paid. 
It  was  recognized  that  the  future  would  lay  special 
demands  upon  the  American  college,  and  that  the 


Financial  Relatione  of  the  Colleges  53 

meeting  of  these  subsequent  demands  would  be  inter- 
fered with  by  the  paying  of  old  debts. 

Boards  of  trustees,  to  whom  are  primarily  com- 
mitted the  financial  interests  of  American  colleges 
and  universities,  as  to  the  faculties  are  committed  the 
scholastic  concerns,  are,  as  a  rule,  composed  of  men 
high  in  purpose,  able  in  intellect,  sensitive  to  public 
needs,  and  devoted  to  their  academic  duty.  They  are 
frequently  not  well  informed  regarding  the  place  of 
the  higher  education  in  a  democracy.  But  such  lack 
of  information  and  of  consequent  sympathy  is  quite 
as  often  due  to  an  inefficient  president  as  to  any  other 
cause.  Yet  as  a  body  they  have  vision  —  though  not 
often  a  far-off  one  —  and  they  also  have  what  is  of 
greater  and  of  greatest  importance,  capacities  for  con- 
certed and  high  resolution  and  action  whenever  the 
occasion  strongly  calls.  The  closing  months  of  the 
war  in  the  history  of  American  institutions  of  the 
liigher  learning  were  apparently  to  constitute  such  an 
occasion  and  the  occasion  was  continued  in  the  fol- 
lowing years.  These  bodies  of  trustees  did  prove  able 
to  do  their  own  great  duties,  and  to  quicken  other  men 
to  do  their  duties  likewise  in  the  crisis. 

To  the  taking  of  risks  (though  not  too  boldly), 
to  the  making  of  sacrifice,  and  to  the  upholding  of 
intellectual    standards    in    an   industrial    age,    in    a 


5-i      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

period  of  necessary  and  glorious  military  force,  these 
boards  of  trustees  gave  themselves  willingly,  fear- 
lessly, and  triumphantly.  For  such  self-giving,  peo- 
ple ultimately  receive  richest  rewards :  —  the  con- 
sciousness that  in  a  time  of  public  doubt,  anxiety, 
and  fear,  they  have  helped  to  transmute  things  ma- 
terial through  personal  devotion  into  truth  and  into 
righteousness. 


IV 


THE    STUDENTS     AHMY    TKAINING    CORPS 

The  months  of  the  spring  and  early  summer  of  the 
year  1918  were  black  for  the  cause  of  the  allies. 
Germany  had  made  her  peace  with  Russia.  The 
Prussian  spirit  had  revived  not  only  in  Prussia  but 
throughout  the  German  Empire.  The  transfer  of 
troops  from  the  Eastern  to  the  "Western  front  had 
been  made.  The  British  Empire  with  the  backs  of 
her  soldiers  to  the  wall,  as  Haig  said,  was  being  put 
to  the  test.  America  had  begun  to  send  her  troops 
over,  but  not  in  the  numbers  or  having  the  training 
which  the  terrible  seriousness  of  the  cause  demanded. 
The  westward  rush  of  German  divisions  threw  doubt 
only  on  one  point  whether  the  contest  would  reach 
its  early  consummation  in  the  capture  of  Paris  or  in 
the  capitulation  of  the  channel  ports.  Among  all 
the  allies  it  was  a  time  of  deep  questioning;  among 
some  a  time  of  racking  doubt;  and  among  a  few,  a 
time  of  paralyzing  dismay.  The  fate  of  the  individ- 
ual nations  and  of  a  democratic  world  was  trembling 

in  the  balances  of  war. 

55 


56      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

It  was  under  such  circumstances  and  in  such  a 
mood  that  the  United  States  began  to  consider  the 
question  of  a  larger  participation  through  her  forces 
in  the  world's  conflict.  Chief  among  the  measures 
debated  was  the  increase  of  her  man  power. 

The  Act  of  Congress  putting  down  the  draft  age  to 
eighteen  instinctively  and  inevitably  laid  a  condition 
on  the  students  of  the  college  of  unexampled  serious- 
ness. This  seriousness  was  intimated  in  a  circular 
issued  by  the  Committee  on  Education  and  Special 
Training  in  the  month  of  March,  1918  : 

"  The  college  student  body  constitutes  a  great  military 
asset  if  fully  developed.  Many  are  material  for  junior 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers.  One  hundred  thou- 
sand young  men  systematically  instructed  say  twelve 
hours  a  week  during  the  college  year,  and  with  summer 
training  camps,  would  produce  at  the  end  of  each  summer 
during  the  period  of  the  war  a  body  of  trained  young  men 
who  would  be  of  immense  value  in  forming  larger  armies 
if  the  wax",  as  now  seems  likely,  is  much  prolonged.  In 
our  judgment  the  military  value  of  training  all  the  college 
students  of  the  country  is  alone  more  than  sufficient  to 
justify  such  a  plan. 

At  the  same  time  a  well-conceived  and  comprehensive 
training  system  would  make  the  students  feel  that  they 
were  doing  their  share  in  a  manner  approved  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  were  justified  in  continuing  their  studies."  ^ 

1  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training,  War  De- 
partment Circulur,  March   28th,   1918. 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        57 

The  average  age  of  entering  college  is  eighteen 
plus.  The  average  age  of  graduation,  therefore,  is 
twenty-two.  The  proposed  conscription,  therefore, 
immediately  and  inevitably  led  or  would  lead  to  the 
emptying  of  all  college  classes  into  the  army,  and  also 
of  preventing  most  men  from  entering  college  at  all 
in  the  academic  year  of  1918-fl9.  In  order  to 
forestall  such  a  catastrophe  the  Act  establishing  the 
Students'  Army  Training  Corps  was  passed.  The 
Act  of  Congress,  approved  May  18th,  1917,  an  Act 
commonly  known  as  the  Selective  Service  Act,  was 
amended  by  the  Act  of  August  31st  of  the  following 
year.  It  was  of  the  utmost  significance.  It  author- 
ized the  raising  and  maintaining  by  voluntary  induc- 
tion and  draft,  of  a  Students'  Army  Training  Corps, 
and  authorized  the  Secretary  of  War  to  form  such 
Corps  in  educational  institutions.  The  purpose  in 
establishing  these  units  was  to  utilize  the  plant, 
equipment  and  organization  of  the  colleges  for  select- 
ing and  training  candidates  for  office,  and  technical 
experts  for  service.  Colleges  and  professional  schools 
formed  the  body  of  the  institutions  in  which  such 
units  were  authorized.  Their  number  was  about  five 
hundred,  representing  colleges  and  schools  of  almost 
every  grade  and  condition.  The  colleges  became,  like 
the  railroads,  essentially  government  institutions. 
All  students  who  entered  the  American  colleges  in 


58      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

the  autumn  of  1918,  either  as  freshmen  or  as  upper- 
classmen,  being  eighteen  years  of  age  and  of  physical 
fitness,  became  by  their  entrance,  soldiers  of  the 
United  States. 

These  students  pursued  a  course  of  study  which 
was  either  military  or  colored  by  military  conditions. 
^0  less  than  eleven  hours  of  each  week  were  assigned 
for  drill  and  work  therewith  connected.  In  addition 
fourteen  hours  of  lectures  and  recitations  were  pro- 
vided from  subjects  which  had  or  might  have  a  cer- 
tain relationship  to  military  affairs.  These  subjects 
included  English,  French,  German,  mathematics, 
physics,  chemistry,  biology,  geolog}',  mineralogy, 
geometry,  meteorology,  topography  and  map-drawing, 
astronomy,  descriptive  geography,  hygiene,  sanita- 
tion, psychology,  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing, 
surveying,  economics,  accounting,  history,  interna- 
tional law,  military  law  and  government.  From  this 
score  of  subjects  the  student  made  such  selection  as 
the  college  officials  thought  fitting.  One  course, 
however,  was  required  of  every  member  of  the  Stu- 
dents' Army  Training  Corps,  generally  known  as  the 
underlying  ideas  of  the  war;  but  this  course  was  in- 
terpreted generously  as  standing  for  a  course  in  the 
aims  of  the  war,  or  in  history,  government,  econom- 
ics, philosophy  or  modern  literature.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  Latin  or  Greek  or  Biblical  literature  was 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        59 

not  included  in  the  course ;  and  that  German  was  in- 
cluded. 

An  essential  military  camp  was  established  on 
every  campus.  The  Campus  Academicus  became  the 
Campus  Martius. 

All  of  these  soldier  students,  or  student  soldiers, 
were  required  to  live  in  barracks  provided  by  the  col- 
lege and  to  have  their  meals  at  a  common  mess.  The 
program  of  each  day  was  essentially  arranged  as  fol- 
lows: 

6  :45  A.M.  Reveille 

Y  :00  Mess 

7:30—    9:30     Drill 
9:30  —  12:00     Recitation  and  Study 
12  :15  P.M.  Mess 

1:00—   4:30    Study  and  Recitation 
4 :30  —    5  :30     Atliletics  and  recreation 
5 :30  Mess 

Mess  to  7  :30      At  student's  disposal 
7 :30  —  9 :30       Study  under  supervision 
10 :00  Taps 

The  requirements  of  the  Government,  moreover, 
went  beyond  the  order  of  each  day.  It  concerned 
the  whole  academic  year  as  well.  Each  year  was  di- 
vided into  four  terms  of  three  months  each,  begin- 
ning with  the  1st  of  October.  Each  term  was  usually 
to  be  made  a  distinct  unit  of  instruction  by  each 
college. 


GO      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

lu  the  development  of  the  Students'  Army  Train- 
ing Corps  the  Federal  Government  approached  more 
nearly  than  by  any  other  method  or  measure  to  the 
German  procedure  of  the  control  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion. The  distance  was  indeed  immense,  for  the  con- 
trol of  education  by  the  State  was  and  is  a  permanent 
Teutonic  method.  The  State  directs  the  course  of 
study.  The  State  determines  the  emphases  in  teach- 
ing and  learning.  The  State  appoints  the  professors. 
The  State  recogiiizes  the  truth  of  Bismarck's  remark 
— "  that  he  who  controls  the  schools,  controls  the 
future."  The  German  State  is  the  educational  di- 
rector. To  the  State  the  university  teacher  takes  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  His  professional  patriotism  is  a 
method  of  professorial  advancement.  For  disobedi- 
ence the  State  punishes  him  by  removal  or  degTada- 
tion  or  other  penalty.  Freedom  of  teaching  is  a 
somewhat  ridiculous  professorial  liberty  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  the  State's  directorship.  For  the  gen- 
eration previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  history 
was  made  the  tool  of  German  patriotism  and  of  the 
depreciation  of  other  nations.  Geography  was  trans- 
muted into  a  scheme  of  colonial  enlargement  and  ag- 
grandizement. Anthropology  became  a  method  of 
eulogizing  the  racial  Germanic  dominance.  Biog- 
raphy, essay,  poem,  was  made  a  means  of  projecting 
Germanic  ideals.     The  atmosphere  of  the  schoolroom 


The  Students    Army  Training  Corps        61 

and  of  university  aula  was  the  atmosphere  of  pan- 
Germanism. 

Such  was  the  German  autocracy  in  education, 
which,  however,  was  thoroughly  unlike  the  strictness 
and  orderliness  of  American  education. 

The  pecuniary  provision  made  by  the  Government 
for  each  soldier  student  was  generous.  The  Govern- 
ment paid  tuition  fees,  provided  lodging  in  the  college 
barracks,  board  in  the  college  mess,  and  uniforms,  and 
gave  him  $30.00  a  month  as  wages.  The  charge  for 
tuition  differs  in  different  colleges,  but  assuming  that 
this  charge  is  $150.00  a  year,  the  Government  prom- 
ised to  pay  for  each  student,  $150.00  for  tuition, 
$360.00  for  lodging  and  board  or  $510.00,  his  wages 
of  $360.00  and  the  cost  of  his  uniform,  making  a  total 
of  at  least  $900.00.  This  arrangement  formed  the 
most  generous  provision  ever  made  in  the  history  of 
liberal  education  for  the  education  of  a  great  body  of 
student  soldiers.     It  had  no  precedent. 

Four  distinct  groups  of  citizens  were  immediately 
and  generally  concerned  with  this  academic  revolu- 
tion. They  were  the  college  faculty,  the  college  trus- 
tees, the  students,  and  the  public.  To  this  revolution 
the  college  faculties  assented,  if  not  with  alacrity,  at 
least  with  willingness  and  in  cooperation.  It  was 
not,  be  it  also  said,  the  willingness  of  compulsion, 
but  a  willingness  based  on  the  assurance  that  this 


02      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

method  ropreseiitod  one  of  tlio  most  effective  forces 
for  the  winuiug  of  the  great  war.  Faculties  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  system  the  fact 
that  the  students  felt  a  certain  obligation  to  work, 
which  under  the  individualistic  system  of  the  former 
time  was  somewhat  foreign  to  certain  groups. 

Trustees  too,  shouldered  the  financial  and  adminis- 
trative responsibility  for  housing  and  feeding  these 
men  with  the  same  generosity  with  which  they  as  pri- 
vate citizens  gave  to  the  "  Y.  M.  C.  A."  or  bought 
Liberty  Bonds.  The  student,  moreover,  took,  for  a 
time,  to  this  new  life  of  the  old  and  the  new  work, 
under  unique  conditions,  with  an  enthusiasm  born  of 
a  generous  and  direct  interest.  But  be  it  added  that 
the  enthusiasm  somewhat  cooled  after  a  few  weeks. 
The  number  of  students,  too,  was  large.  In  fact, 
the  enrollment  in  the  freshman  classes  of  the  best  col- 
leges was  far  greater  than  had  ever  been  known.  It 
may  be  added  that  the  cause  of  this  increase  was  not 
to  be  interpreted  as  slackness.  For  these  men  as 
college  students  were  subject  to  the  same  general 
terms  —  of  either  hope  or  fear,  and  far  more  fre- 
quently hope  —  of  being  drafted  as  if  they  had  dwelt 
outside  the  college  gateway. 

The  fourth  group  concerned  with  this  revolution 
was  the  people  themselves.  The  people  responded  to 
this  change  with  an  enthusiasm  akin  to  that  of  the 


The  Students    Army  Training  Corps        63 

boys.  Education  has  become  the  great  human  inter- 
est, and  the  American  people  recognized  that  this 
unique  development  of  the  higher  form  of  this  inter- 
est was  fraught  with  the  most  tremendous  potentiali- 
ties for  knowledge,  righteousness,  and  power,  indi- 
vidual and  national. 

In  causing  this  transformation  in  the  higher  edu- 
cation, the  Government  was  moved  by  at  least  three 
considerations.  First,  the  giving  of  relief  from  over- 
crowding in  the  cantonments.  Second,  the  promo- 
tion of  efficiency.  The  efficiency  was  promoted  by 
the  elimination  of  the  unfit  and  the  discovering  of 
the  fit,  and  of  the  fittest  for  special  jobs.  For  after 
a  period,  each  man  was  assigned  to  military  duty  in 
one  of  the  following  forms : 

(a)  Transferred  to  a  central  officers'  camp. 

(b)  Transferred  to  a  non-commissioned  officers' 
training  school. 

(c)  Transferred  to  a  school  for  intensive  work  in 
a  specified  line. 

(d)  Transferred  to  a  technical  training  school. 

(e)  Transferred  to  a  cantonment  to  serve  as  a 
private. 

A  third  motive  of  the  Government  was  the  sav- 
ing of  the  colleges  from  disruption.  The  draft 
would  have  gone  a  long  ways  toward  at  least  the  tem- 
porary dissolution  of  the  colleges.     ISTo  favoritism 


(54      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

could  or  should  have  been  shown  by  the  government 
to  the  academic  class.  These  men  could  not  and 
should  not  have  been  made  the  subjects  of  exemption, 
as  medical  students  were  made,  and  properly  made. 
Most  men,  too,  would  have  declined  to  enter  a  col- 
lege that  thus  exempted  them.  They  would  have  felt 
the  implied  shame  of  cowardice.  The  men  who 
joined  the  college  were  still  open  to  conscription  as 
Avere  men  without  the  academic  walls.  They  were 
allowed  to  stay  in  college  for  a  time,  just  how  long 
that  time  would  be  no  one  knew.  It  might  have  been 
for  a  single  quarter  or  term.  It  might  have  been  for 
several  quarters;  but  whether  the  time  were  long  or 
short,  many  men  would  in  that  time  have  succeeded 
in  getting  the  college  touch  and  the  college  vision 
would  have  dawned  upon  their  eyes. 

In  an  effort  to  serve  the  college  and  in  the  purpose 
of  the  college  to  serve  the  nation  a  campaign  for 
students  was  undertaken  in  each  of  the  states.  Con- 
ventions of  college  officers  were  called  to  promote  gen- 
eral enthusiasm  and  to  consider  academic  conditions. 
High  school  principals  and  superintendents  were 
called  on  to  quicken  the  interest  of  students  in  going 
on  with  their  education.  Parishes  and  churches 
were  requested  by  the  United  States  Committee  on 
Education  to  present  to  their  congregations  the  im- 


The  Students    Army  Training  Corps        65 

portance  of  both  the  higher  education  and  of  military 
service.  Parents  were  encouraged  to  make  all  sacri- 
fices necessary  to  keep  their  sons  and  daughters  in 
school.  Series  of  letters  were  printed  by  the  news- 
papers interpreting  and  emphasizing  the  advantages 
of  the  higher  education.  State  and  local  superin- 
tendents of  schools  employed  the  agency  of  their  office 
in  arguing  for  the  value  of  an  education  of  an  ad- 
vanced type.  "  It's  patriotic  to  go  to  college  " —  be- 
came the  common  educational  war-cry. 

Many  and  diverse  were  the  arguments  used  in  this 
campaign  for  the  entrance  of  young  men  into  the  col- 
lege, and  subsequently,  into  the  United  States  army. 
The  War  Department  issued  special  circulars  urging 
entrance  and  enlistment.  It  was  declared  that  engi- 
neers, chemists,  physicists  and  geologists  were  as  im- 
portant as  riflemen.  Liberal  education  and  scientific 
training  help,  it  was  affirmed,  to  develop  the  qualities 
of  research  which  are  as  necessary  as  narrow  military 
efficiency.  The  entrance  into  college  would  prevent 
premature  enlistment  and  would  offer  a  proper  outlet 
for  patriotic  zeal.  The  standards  of  education  would 
be  maintained  and  efficiency  in  winning  the  war  pro- 
moted. The  education  and  training  thus  given,  ef- 
fective in  war,  would  also  become  precious  assets  in 
the  time  of  peace.     The  individual  student  would  be 


GQ     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 


made  fit  for  service  in  the  world,  not  only  in  the  ensu- 
ing months  but  for  his  ei: 
Commissioner  of  Education : 


ing  months  but  for  his  entire  lifetime.     Said  the 


"  Not  only  is  it  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the  country 
and  the  safety  of  our  democracy  when  the  war  is  over;  it 
is  equally  important  for  the  strength  of  our  country  while 
the  war  continues.  We  would  all  hope  that  the  war  may 
end  soon,  but  it  may  be  very  long,  and  in  war  a  people 
must  prepare  for  every  possibility.  If  the  war  should  be 
long,  there  will  be  a  great  need  in  all  the  Allied  countries 
for  large  numbers  of  men  and  women  of  the  best  college 
and  university  training  for  service  both  in  the  Army  and 
in  the  industries  directly  connected  with  the  war,  and 
the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States  must 
supply  this  need  to  a  large  extent  for  all  the  Allied 
countries.  In  some  fields,  as  chemistry  and  the  various 
forms  of  civil  and  industrial  engineering,  the  demand  for 
the  trained  men  and  women  is  already  much  greater  than 
the  supply.  It  is,  therefore,  a  patriotic  duty  for  young 
men  and  women  who  are  prepared  to  enter  college  to  do 
so  and  for  those  now  in  college  to  remain  until  their 
courses  are  completed,  unless  they  are  called  for  some  serv- 
ice which  can.  not  be  rendered  so  effectively  by  others. 
They  should  be  encouraged  to  exercise  that  high  form  of 
self-restraint  which  will  keep  them  at  their  studies  de- 
spite all  temptations  for  some  more  immediate  service  un- 
til they  are  prepared  for  the  expert  work  without  which 
the  devotion  and  efforts  of  millions  will  be  of  little  value. 

When  the  war  is  over  and  the  days  of  reconstruction 
come,  the  call  upon  this  country  for  men  and  women  of 
the  highest  and  best  training  for  help  in  rebuilding  the 
world  will  be  large  and  insistent.     For  our  own  good  and 


The  Students    Army  Training  Corps        67 

for  the  good  of  the  world  we  should  be  able  to  respond 
generously.  Conditions  in  this  country  and  our  position 
among  the  peoples  of  the  world  will  require  of  us  a  higher 
level  of  intelligence  and  civic  righteousness  than  we  or 
any  other  people  have  ever  yet  attained.  This  must  be 
insured  largely  through  the  education  of  our  schools."  ^ 

The  curriculum  into  which  the  student  was  intro- 
duced on  his  entrance  into  college  was  one  of  much 
detail.  The  program  was  in  no  small  degree  based 
upon  the  age  of  the  students  at  the  time  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  colleges.  The  supposition  was  common 
that  the  war  would  continue  for  at  least  one  year,  and 
possibly  for  three  or  four.  It  was,  therefore,  de- 
termined that  the  older  students  of  more  than  twenty 
years  should  remain  in  college  only  one  term  of 
twelve  weeks ;  those  who  had  reached  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, two  terms  of  twelve  weeks  each ;  and  those  of  a 
younger  age  would  possibly  be  allowed  to  remain  for 
three  terms.  For  those  whose  outlook  was  of  the 
briefest  or  briefer  duration,  the  subjects  prescribed 
were  of  a  narrower  sort,  being  quite  entirely  military, 
embracing  subjects  determined  by  the  service  pro- 
posed. It  might  include  air  service,  ordnance,  en- 
gineering, military  law  and  practice,  surveying  and 
map  drawing  and  motor  transportation.  The  curric- 
ulum was  held  to  professional  subjects.     For  men, 

1  Letter   from   the   Department   of   the   Interior,    Bureau   of 
Education,  Washington,  August  15,  1918. 


68      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

however,  of  the  earlier  age  of  eighteen,  a  somewhat 
different  program  was  prescribed  of  a  broader  type, 
but  even  in  this  broader  type  courses  in  military  in- 
struction and  war  issues  were  included.^ 

While  these  teachings  were  being  given  to  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  in  about 

1  The  breadth  of  the  instruction  in  history  for  instance  is 
illustrated  in  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Education 
in  1917,  entitled,  "Opportunities  for  History  Teachers  —  The 
Lessons  of  the  Great  War  in  the  Classroom."  In  one  paragraph 
of  that  work  it  is  said:  "The  training  of  yoiuig  people,  and 
of  the  parents  through  the  pupils,  to  take  an  intelligent  part 
in  the  decision  of  public  questions  is  important  enough  at  any 
time;  but  it  is  peculiarly  so  in  this  war,  whose  meaning  for 
the  individual  citizen  is  not  so  easily  brought  home.  In  1823 
and  1824,  when  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  under  discussion, 
Daniel  Webster  referred  to  the  people  who  thought  that  Amer- 
icans had  no  interest  in  the  European  system  of  mutual  in- 
surance for  hereditary  rulers  against  popular  movements. 
What,  they  said,  have  we  to  do  with  Europe?  'The  thunder, 
it  may  be  said,  rolls  at  a  distance.  The  wide  Atlantic  is  be- 
tween us  and  danger;  and,  however  others  may  suffer,  we 
shall  remain  safe.'  W^ebster's  answer  to  this  question  was 
strikingly  similar  to  some  of  the  utterances  of  President 
Wilson :  '  I  think  it  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  this  to  say  that 
we  are  one  of  the  nations  of  the  earth.  .  .  .  We  have  as  clear 
an  interest  in  international  law  as  individuals  have  in  the 
laws  of  society.'  That  was  said  long  before  the  steamship, 
the  ocean  cable,  the  submarine,  and  the  wirelessi  had  broken 
down  still  further  our  '  splendid  isolation.'  To-day  we  are 
fighting  for  our  own  rights,  but  over  and  above  those  special 
rights  of  our  own  are  fighting  for  international  law  itself, 
without  which  no  nation  can  be  safe,  least  of  all  those  demo- 
cratic governments  which  are  less  effectively  organized  for 
war  than  for  peace." 


TTie  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        69 

five  hundred  colleges,  the  gains  and  losses  of  this  mil- 
itary-academic progTam  became  apparent.  The 
gains,  and  there  were  gains,  and  losses,  and  there 
were  losses,  academic  and  personal,  educational  and 
administrative,  occurred  under  an  authority  that  was 
divided.  The  original  college  officers  had  charge  of 
the  regular  academic  work.  The  military  officers 
were  in  supreme  control  of  the  military  side.  These 
two  administrations  were  going  forward  upon  the 
same  campus  and  at  the  same  time.  Authority  was 
divided.  It  was  only  because  of  the  mutual  respect 
of  those  concerned,  that  collisions  were  so  few  and 
so  slight.  Academic  standards  were  arbitrarily  set 
aside;  academic  methods  were  contemned;  military 
standards,  manners  and  methods  were  installed.  Be- 
cause of  the  exigency  college  presidents  and  faculties 
were  inclined  to  give  up  to  the  military  dominance. 
The  officers  who  embodied  these  conditions  were  us- 
ually young  men,  themselves  students  in  college,  other 
than  the  college  to  which  they  were  assigned.  They 
were  immature,  without  experience,  unable  to  under- 
stand relationships  and  naturally  inclined  to  the  ar- 
bitrary enforcement  of  rules  and  orders.  The  War 
Department  sought  to  avoid  confusion  and  collision ; 
but  confusion  was  inevitable  and  collisions  not  un- 
common. The  command  from  the  War  Department 
that  the  officers  should  assist  the  educational  authori- 


70     Colleges  arid  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

ties  in  securing  from  all  men  a  full  performance  of 
tlieir  academic  work  had  small  meaning.  Some  of- 
ficers were  unfit  to  do  their  duty  and  they  therefore 
did  it  with  inefficiency,  and  with  but  little  regard 
to  either  student  or  teacher. 

While  this  work  of  military  training,  and  of  a  cer- 
tain type  of  liberal  education,  was  going  on,  the  ar- 
mistice was  signed.  The  stopping  of  induction  was 
ordered  USTovember  14th,  and  a  few  days  after,  iSTo- 
vember  26th,  a  general  demobilization  of  the  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  soldier  students  enrolled 
was  ordered.  The  order  for  demobilization  came  as 
a  surprise  quite  as  great,  and  quite  as  disintegrating 
for  the  students  as  for  the  college  itself.  The  sud- 
denness was  somewhat  disastrous.  The  harm  done 
by  the  issuance  of  the  order  was  well  indicated  by  Ex- 
President  Taft: — 

"  No  institutions  in  our  country  have  been  more  helpful 
to  the  Government  in  carrying  on  the  war  than  the  uni- 
versities and  colleges.  From  their  students  and  recent 
graduates  the  War  and  Navy  Departments  have  filled  their 
training  camps  and  recruited  their  officers.  The  greatest 
difficulty  in  making  a  republican  army  is  in  securing  offi- 
cers. The  wonderful  adaptability  of  the  American  college 
boy  saved  the  situation  for  the  first  two  millions.  When 
the  second  two  millions  had  to  be  raised  and  officered  the 
Government  in  effect  commandeered  every  collegiate 
school  of  learning  and  made  it  into  a  military  school,  an 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        71 

associate  West  Point  or  Annapolis.  Rigid  discipline  was 
enforced  under  army  or  naval  officers.  Curricula  and 
faculties  were  arranged  to  accord  with  the  purpose,  and 
the  whole  academic  character  of  the  institutions  was  aban- 
doned to  aid  the  Government  in  the  war.  Thousands  and 
thousands  of  cadets  have  been  launched  on  a  year's  train- 
ing that  would  have  made  good  material  for  young  com- 
missioned officers  in  the  army.  They  have  now  completed 
nearly  a  third  of  the  school  year.  The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities have  made  their  plans  for  a  full  year. 

With  the  armistice  and  the  coming  of  peace,  the  mili- 
tary departments  of  the  Government,  it  is  said,  propose 
to  discharge  these  cadets  and  to  break  up  the  plans  to 
which  the  whole  college  system  of  the  country  has  com- 
mitted itself  for  a  year  at  great  expense  of  time  and  money 
and  effort.  In  the  middle  of  the  school  year  the  cadets 
are  to  be  thrown  out  of  their  courses  and  to  be  left  with- 
out discipline  and  without  definite  aim  or  plan  until  next 
fall.  This  is  greatly  to  be  regretted.  It  is  not  fair  to  the 
colleges.  They  cannot  resume  their  academic  courses  and 
life  before  next  fall.  It  will  leave  them  crippled  and 
struggling  for  nine  montlis.  Mere  money  compensation, 
if  forthcoming,  will  not  be  adequate.  It  is  not  fair  to  the 
cadets.  A  year's  training  of  the  kind  already  begun  would 
be  good  for  the  boys  and  good  for  the  country.  It  would 
be  a  useful  step  in  beginning  a  system  of  universal  train- 
ing. It  would  save  the  country  from  demoralization  of 
its  higher  educational  work. 

The  cost  to  the  Government  of  continuance  until  June 
would  be  small  as  compared  with  the  waste  involved  in 
this  sudden  break  up.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
announcement  from  Washington  is  received  with  dismay 
by  college  authorities  throughout  the  country.  It  may 
lead  to  a  protest  from  them  that  the  Administration  will 
do  well  to  heed. 


72      Colleges  and  Universities  m  the  Great  War 

If  the  unfortunate  policy  is  adhered  to,  it  will  give  well- 
gi-ounded  support  to  the  charge  that  the  Administration  is 
afraid  to  do  what  it  knows  it  ought  to  do,  because  it  wishes 
to  escape  the  demagogic  and  cheap  criticism  that  it  favors 
unduly  those  seeking  a  college  education."  ^ 

The  colleges  had  not  only  revolutionized  their  cur- 
ricula, they  had  also  expended  large  amounts  of 
money  in  the  construction  of  barracks  and  of  mess 
halls  for  their  soldier  students,  these  costing  from  a 
few  thousand  dollars  up  to  sums  as  large  as  at  least 
$200,000.  These  structures  were  paid  for  out  of  the 
funds  of  the  colleges  themselves,  under  the  assurance 
that  the  Government  would  finally  compensate  the 
colleges  for  such  expenditures.  After  some  months 
of  delay,  in  some  cases  of  more  than  a  year,  delays  in 
many  cases  inevitable,  however,  the  Government  fin- 
ally adjusted  these  accounts  and  usually  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  colleges  concerned. 

As  one  reviews  this  unique  educational  movement 
it  is  not  difficult  to  count  up  its  gains  and  its  losses. 

Among  the  gains  is  to  be  noted  an  increase  in  the 
formal  courtesy  and  good  manners  of  the  students. 
The  uniform  may  or  may  not  be  becoming  to  the  in- 
dividual taken  by  himself,  yet,  it  is  becoming  and 
certainly  impressive  when  it  is  seen  upon  a  hundred 
or  a  thousand  men.     The  manners  of  these  men  be- 

1  A  Grave  Injustice  to  American  Colleges,  published  in 
many  papers,   November,   1918. 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        73 

came  more  constantly  such  as  belong  to  gentlemen. 
Salutations  were  given  with  greater  constancy  and 
f reeness, —  not  that  these  items  are  at  all  of  primary 
significance,  but  they  do  have  at  least  some  value, 
value  inward  as  well  as  outward.  For  good  manners 
in  the  college  yard  make  the  ordinary  doings  of  life 
a  bit  more  easy,  and  they,  moreover,  increase  genuine 
self-respect. 

It  is  also  clear  that  the  regular  habits  of  the  stu- 
dent camp  tended  to  promote  health.  The  habits  of 
the  older  college  men  are  not  habits.  They  are, 
rather,  violations,  eccentricities,  irregularities,  con- 
scious or  unconscious.  The  college  man  sleeps  at  all 
hours  or  no  hours  at  all.  He  eats  at  all  hours  or  does 
not  eat  at  all,  and  eats,  when  he  does  eat,  what  he 
likes.  He  exercises  in  such  ways  as  please  him  and 
too  often  it  pleases  him  not  to  exercise  at  all.  He 
studies  much  or  he  studies  little,  and  at  such  times 
and  places  as  suit  his  daily  and  hourly  convenience. 
Though  such  an  interpretation  appears  to  be  a  little 
too  general,  yet,  there  are  scores  of  college  men  in 
every  hundred  to  whom  it  can  be  fittingly  applied. 
Contrast  with  such  disorderliness  a  program  such  as 
obtained  at  most  colleges :  in  which  from  the  reveille 
at  6:45  and  breakfast  at  7:00,  with  drill  at  7:30, 
every  hour  till  taps  at  ten  o'clock  was  occupied ! 
Such  a  program  promotes  health. 


74      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Among  these  advantages  was  a  third  gain,  to  wit, 
students  were  well  looked  after  by  the  military  col- 
legiate authorities.  The  authorities  knew  where  each 
student  was,  and  how  he  was,  and  what  he  was  doing 
with  his  time  and  with  his  o^^^l  personal  self.  Super- 
vision was  constant  and  detailed.  Such  vigilance 
was  quite  unlike  the  old  academic  laissez  faire.  I 
know  very  well  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
each  method.  Laissez  faire,  improperly  applied,  de- 
velops rashness,  waste,  intellectual,  ethical  and  not 
infrequently  utter  wreckage.  Supervision,  properly 
used,  promotes  economy  in  spending  one's  complete 
forces.  Supervision,  improperly  used,  applied  too 
constantly  or  too  closely,  tends  to  promote  the  infan- 
tile mind  and  will,  without  vigor  or  directness  of  per- 
sonality. It  protects  innocence ;  it  kills  achievement. 
I  venture  to  say  that  the  older  colleges  or  at  least 
many  colleges  of  the  older  time,  erred  on  the  side  of 
giving  too  little  supervision  or  too  great  freedom. 
They  thought  the  student  was  a  man.  He  was,  but 
he  was  not  quite  so  much  of  a  man  as  they  were  in- 
clined to  believe.  Therefore,  the  faculty  gave  him 
an  independence  which  he  could  not  use  well,  and  he 
wasted  himself. 

The  military  college  may  be  inclined  to  use  vigi- 
lance too  constant  or  too  exact,  but  the  reaction  from 
the  older  system  was  not  unfitting.     And  this  vigi- 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        75 

lance  of  academic  conduct  and  bearing  produced  in 
the  year  1918  good  results. 

Such  watchfulness  insured  another  gain.  It  was 
the  gain  of  industriousness.  The  college  man,  made 
into  a  soldier,  worked.  He  labored  at  his  studies 
some  eight  hours  a  day  or  forty-eight  hours  a  week. 
He  labored  at  his  drill  some  ten  hours  a  week. 
Happy  man!  If  he  were  poor,  or  semi-poor,  in 
purse,  he  was  not  obliged  to  earn  his  living  at  25  cents 
an  hour.  He  was  in  the  pay  of  the  Government,  and 
he  was  able  to  study.  If  he  were  rich,  or  half -rich,  he 
had  no  leisure  in  which  to  spend  money  or  to  loaf. 
His  mood  was  —  Attention.  The  college  man 
worked,  and  to  teach  men  how  to  work  effectively  is 
also  a  chief  end  of  higher  education.  It  was  proved 
that  more  work  was  done,  and  better  work.  This 
gain  was  both  quantitive  and  qualitative.  Yet,  it  is 
to  be  added,  that  this  gain  was  vitiated  by  the 
interruption  of  the  day's  routine  and  also  by  a  certain 
excitement  under  which  the  soldier  student  constantly 
labored. 

Closely  connected  with  this  advantage  was  the  ad- 
vantage of  obedience.  The  first  duty  of  the  soldier, 
whether  that  soldier  be  a  student  or  an  infantry  man, 
is  obedience.  He  is  not  under  rules;  he  is  under 
commands;  he  takes  orders.  The  contrast  between 
the  directness  and  the  apparent  arbitrariness  of  the 


76      Colleges  ami  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

eaiiip  and  the  graciousness  of  a  college  of  gentlemen 
is  deep  and  wide.  This  obedience  is  to  be  prompt 
and  absolute.  Such  a  life  is  good  for  the  soldier 
student  for  at  least  a  time.  It  is  well  for  him  to  be 
the  subject  or  victim  of  penalty,  and  not  to  be  the 
writer  of  excuses  for  absences.  Indifference  to  law 
is  an  American  failing.  It  is  good  for  college  men  to 
obey  law  with  promptness  and  exactness. 

A  further  gain  was  also  apparent  in  the  increase 
in  the  democracy  of  the  college.  The  soldier's  uni- 
form is  typical.  One  of  the  first  things  which  the 
authorities  did  to  the  men  on  their  induction  into  the 
Students'  Army  Training  Corps  was  to  take  from 
them  their  fraternity  pins.  One  oath  was  adminis- 
tered, one  mess  was  spread,  one  camp  life  was  pro- 
vided, one  drill  was  required,  one  set  of  tactics  was 
learned  and  practiced,  one  comprehensive  duty  was 
imposed.  Of  course,  official  individualities  were  re- 
spected. Of  course,  the  life  of  the  officer  was  made 
unlike  the  life  of  the  man  of  the  ranks.  The  distinc- 
tion between  the  officer  and  the  private  was  empha- 
sized with  a  stress  which  the  civilian  does  not  under- 
stand, but  such  distinction  was  declared  to  be  neces- 
sary for  orderliness.  Yet,  the  general  zones  and 
strata  of  social  demarcations  which,  in  some  colleges 
have  been  too  characteristic,  were  either  wholly  cut 
down  or  largely  wiped  out. 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps         77 

I  also  wish  to  refer  to  two  more  gains  lying  in  a 
different  plane  from  the  gains  accruing  to  the  student 
body.  One  of  the  gains  was  found  in  the  evidence 
which  this  transformation  offered  concerning  the  ad- 
justability of  the  college  teacher.  Too  often  has  this 
teacher  been  looked  upon  as  unbending  in  his  meth- 
ods, fixed  in  his  devotion  to  his  scholastic  ideas,  and 
stiff  in  his  interpretations  of  the  means  to  be  used  in 
achieving  results.  Such  has  been  the  interpretation 
of  the  public.  Those  of  us  who  live  all  our  lives 
with  college  teachers  have  recognized  that  this  inter- 
pretation was  not  so  true  as  was  commonly  believed. 
The  revolution  proved  that  it  was  even  more  false 
than  seemed  possible.  College  teachers  of  Greek  be- 
came chairmen  of  committees  on  building  barracks 
and  on  running  mess  halls.  Teachers  of  philosophy 
instructed  in  elementary  French,  and  distinguished 
professors  of  Latin  became  interested  in  purchasing 
supplies  for  a  post  canteen.  The  professorial  mind 
is  not  an  unbending  bar  of  steel,  but  rather,  like 
water,  it  adjusts  itself  to  the  vessel  which  bears  it. 

A  further  advantage  was  also  of  a  similar  sort. 
It  was  the  impression  of  the  public  that  the  college  is 
remote  from  human  concerns.  The  public  has  often 
assumed  that  the  college  was  separated  from  human 
affairs,  and  that  the  academic  mind  was  quite  foreign 
to  common  interests.     Of  course,  the  belief  was  false, 


78      Colleges  ami  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

so  false  was  it,  that  it  seemed  unworthy  to  speak  of 
it,  much  less  to  attempt  to  remove  it.  But  the  revo- 
lution proved  to  all  who  would  receive  evidence,  that 
every  interest  lying  outside  of  the  academic  gate- 
ways is  of  deep  concern  to  the  teachers  dwelling 
within  these  gateways.  The  college  student  and  the 
college  teacher  responded  to  the  call  of  the  colors  and 
of  the  nation  as  no  other  body  responded, —  and  I  do 
not  depreciate  any  response, —  and  such  response  the 
community  not  only  recognized  as  normal  and  nat- 
ural, but  also  eulogized  as  belonging  to  the  human 
order  of  the  heroic. 

Such  were  some  of  the  gains  resulting  from  the  aca- 
demic revolution,  and  they  were  gains  of  great  worth. 

But  there  were  losses  also  found  in  this  academic 
revolution.  These  losses  may  be  very  largely  put 
into  the  singular  number.  For  the  sum  of  them  was 
a  single  loss.  It  was  the  loss  of  the  higher  education 
itself ;  it  was  the  loss  of  culture ;  it  was  the  loss  of  in- 
tellectual breadth ;  it  was  the  loss  of  liberal  learning. 
Various  may  be  the  names  and  diverse  the  expressions 
used  to  indicate  the  loss.  It  is  the  loss  of  a  sense  of 
relationships,  of  a  certain  intellectual  freedom  in 
knowing  and  in  judging  subjects,  movements,  men. 
A  well-roundedness  and  balance,  a  power  of  reason, 
judgment,  and  large  humanness,  a  sense  of  considera- 
tion for  contrary  principles  and  motives,  means  and 


The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps        Y9 

methods,  a  willingness  to  listen  and  to  reflect,  a  power 
of  weighing  evidence  and  of  assessing  truths  and 
facts  at  a  just  value,  a  genuine  intellectual  altru- 
ism : —  these  are  and  ever  are  the  qualities  and  marks 
of  the  higher  education  which  were  brought  into 
jeopardy.  The  higher  education  helps  to  make  each 
citizen  of  the  nation  a  freeman  of  the  intellectual 
realm.  Of  course,  breadth  may  easily  become  vague- 
ness and  liberty,  looseness, —  as  easily  as  individual- 
ity may  become  eccentricity;  but  to  preserve  the 
value  of  breadth  and  of  liberality  without  narrow- 
ness, is  the  goal  of  the  higher  education.  Yet  it  may 
be  at  once  said  that  culture  or  cultivation  is  secured 
as  much  by  the  teacher  as  by  the  subject  taught,  be 
the  subject  even  the  great  literatures  or  philosophies. 
For  a  boor  may  so  teach  Greek  as  to  create  boorish- 
ness ;  and  a  scholar  may  so  teach  carpentry  as  to 
promote  scholarship  and  to  nourish  scholars.  It  is 
easy  to  believe  that  several  of  the  required  military 
subjects,  taught  with  a  sense  of  relationships,  would 
always  tend  to  develop  men  of  great  thoughtfulness 
and  appreciation,  of  genuine  education  and  culture. 
Though  this  comprehensive  loss  was  chief,  yet 
there  occurred  also  two  minor  disadvantages.  One 
was  the  lack  of  initiative,  and  the  slightness  of  op- 
portunity for  individual  study  and  for  personal  inde- 
pendence.    Each  day,  as  I  have  said,  was  a  program 


80      Colleges  and   i')iirersitics  in  the  Great  War 

through  which  the  students  marched  with  the  regular- 
ity of  soldiers.  To  vary  from  the  system,  save  for 
an  exceptional  and  imperative  reason,  was  impos- 
sible. Good  as  this  system  was  for  some  men  of  the 
loose  intellectual  type  and  of  moral  laziness,  it  was 
for  others,  the  worst  possible  process.  It  made  the 
lock-step  in  education. 

Another  disadvantage  lay  in  a  wholly  different 
realm.  It  was  the  lack  of  that  culture  and  inspira- 
tion which  comes  from  the  formal  services  of  religion. 
Of  course,  the  camp  had  its  religious  rights  and  soci- 
eties. Every  regiment  has  a  chaplain  or  chaplains. 
The  "  Y.  M.  C.  A."  in  many  and  diverse  ways  per- 
forms a  great  service.  Yet  that  place  which  the  col- 
lege chapel  fills  in  the  usual  academic  order  was 
lacking  in  the  military  college.  Religion  in  college 
should  represent  the  broadest  teachings.  It  should 
embody  at  least  these  four  principles :  love  as  the  law 
of  life ;  the  perf ectability  of  the  race ;  the  personality 
of  God;  and  the  immortality  of  the  individual  soul. 
The  atmosphere  which  clusters  about  a  proper  daily 
chapel  service,  the  military  college  lacks,  and  cannot 
do  otherwise  than  lack.  Such  a  service  represents 
not  only  religion  as  such,  but  also  religion  as  an  in- 
spiring part  of  culture  and  a  necessary  element  in  the 
character  of  the  noblest  individual  man. 

I  should  perhaps  refer  to  one  further  condition 


The  Students    Army  Training  Corps        81 

which  resulted  from  the  academic  transformation, 
which  may  be  said  to  lie  in  the  educational  "  Ko 
Man's  Land."  It  is  found  in  the  condition  of  the 
ordinary  undergi*aduate  undertakings.  These  un- 
dertakings had  become  in  the  earlier  time  too  numer- 
ous and  too  compelling.  Avocations  had  displaced 
the  vocation  of  the  college  undergraduate,  yet,  the 
avocation  had  and  has  its  functions  to  perform.  The 
college  newspaper  and  magazine,  daily,  weekly, 
monthly,  the  musical  and  dramatic  clubs,  the  debat- 
ing and  literary  societies,  the  athletic  associations, 
these  and  many  similar  organizations  and  forces 
ceased  to  be,  or  at  least  ceased  to  live  a  vigorous  life. 
To  some  students  these  informal  forces  formed  and 
form  the  best  of  the  college.  To  others  they  serve  as 
leeches,  drawing  away  the  real  academic  blood.  But 
whether  for  good  or  for  ill,  they  practically  ceased 
to  function  in  the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps. 

Chief  among  such  academic  by-products  is  found 
the  college  fraternity.  Next  to  the  organization  of 
the  individual  class,  these  societies  of  the  students 
are  the  most  important  of  all  associations.  They 
form  a  cross  section  of  the  academic  life.  The  fra- 
ternity includes  freshmen  as  well  as  seniors.  It 
also  goes  beyond  the  day  of  graduation.  Its  alumni 
associations  form  an  important  part  of  its  organiza- 
tion, giving  counsel  and  support,  financial  and  per- 


82      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

sonal,  to  the  undergraduate  chapter.  With  the 
establishment  of  the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps 
the  fraternities  closed  their  houses  or  at  any 
rate,  curtailed  their  activities.  The  requirements 
that  the  soldier  students  should  live  in  barracks  for- 
bade the  use  of  houses  for  dormitory  purposes.  The 
few  members  not  eligible  for  the  training  course  by 
reason  of  age  or  of  physical  disability,  used  them; 
and  in  the  few  free  hours  of  the  day  the  men  in  khaki 
came  to  them  as  a  place  of  refreshing.  But  for  the 
first  months  of  the  college  year  of  1918-1919,  they 
became  rather  a  liability  than  an  asset.  On  demobil- 
ization they  resumed  their  normal  functions.  It 
may  now  be  said  that  the  fraternities  in  the  Ameri- 
can colleges  have,  as  fraternities,  taken  a  great  part 
in  the  war,  no  less  than  one-fourth  of  all  the  mem- 
bers of  some  fraternities  being  enrolled.  If  their 
members  went  forth  as  students  and  undergraduates 
of  individual  colleges,  they  also  found  deep  inspira- 
tion and  cause  of  hearty  gratitude  in  their  fraternity 
association.  In  their  quarterly  and  other  journals, 
the  fraternities  kept  in  close  relationship  with  their 
brethren  over-seas. 

A  proper  summary  of  all  the  comprehensive  and 
diverse  conditions  establishing  the  Students'  Army 
Training  Corps  is  found  in  a  personal  letter,  and  yet 
not  so  personal  as  to  forbid  its  present  use,  written 


The  Students    Army  Training  Corps        83 

a  few  days  after  the  demobilization  of  the  larger 
share  of  the  corps,  by  the  Secretary  of  War.  Mr. 
Baker  says : 

"  The  Students'  Army  Training  Corps  was,  of  course, 
primarily  organized  for  military  uses,  but  I  was  especially 
happy  that  such  an  arrangement  turned  out  to  be  feasible 
because  it  seemed  to  me  to  be  a  way  of  keeping  a  large 
number  of  our  American  colleges  from  entire  dissolution, 
and  gave  some  promise  of  continuing  academic  traditions 
of  the  country  during  the  war.  It  seemed  to  me  that  if 
the  war  was  to  go  on  for  several  years  we  would  come  to  a 
situation  in  this  country  of  having  almost  no  academically 
trained  men  over  a  period  of  three  or  four  years.  Serious 
as  this  loss  would  have  been  in  itself,  a  still  more  serious 
consequence  of  it  would  have  been  the  break  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  liberal  studies,  for  the  released  army  would  un- 
doubtedly have  gone  eagerly  to  scientific  and  the  so-called 
more  practical  courses,  while  the  liberal  studies  of  lan- 
guage and  literature  would  have  had  a  struggle  to  regain 
their  places. 

"  I  think  there  are  some  compensations  of  the  kind  you 
suggest.  Our  Army  experience  has  taught  a  good  deal 
about  the  health  of  young  men,  and  while  I  am  by  no 
means  clear  that  we  can  get  the  same  sort  of  zeal  among 
college  students  for  military  training  in  times  of  peace  as 
we  got  when  there  was  an  immediate  war  objective  ahead 
of  the  men,  I  still  feel  that  there  are  some  things  for  the 
colleges  to  learn  from  the  training  camps,  and  they  are 
particularly  the  things  implied  in  the  soldier's  motto  of 
keeping  one's  self  '  fit  to  fight.'  I  share  your  feeling,  too, 
that  the  discipline  and  courtesy  of  the  military  establish- 
ment are  handsome  attributes  in  the  normal  relation  of 


84      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

young  men  to  one  another  and  to  their  instructors,  and 
I  hope  it  will  be  found  possible  for  us  to  retain  some  of 
these  habits  as  a  permanent  gain."  ^ 

In  a  further  letter  written  July  19th,  1919,  Secre- 
tary Baker  gives  a  benediction  to  the  colleges :  — 

"  The  settlements  recently  completed  between  your  insti- 
tution and  the  United  States  Government  terminate  the 
contractual  relations  entered  into  last  autumn  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  into  effect  the  plan  of  the  Students' 
Army  Training  Corps.  While  that  plan  was  a  logical  if 
not  imperative  step  at  the  time  when  it  was  undertaken, 
when  a  long  war  appeared  to  be  in  prospect,  and  when  it 
was  necessary  to  mobilize  the  entire  energies  of  the  nation, 
the  signing  of  the  armistice  on  November  11  prevented 
it  from  ever  being  fully  carried  into  effect.  The  abrupt 
termination  of  the  S.  A.  T.  C.  before  sufficient  time  had 
elapsed  for  its  complete  development,  the  interruptions 
due  to  the  influenza  epidemic  and  to  other  conditions  in- 
cident to  the  early  stages  of  organization,  created  diffi- 
culties which  could  not  fail  seriously  to  disturb  the  order 
of  academic  life.  I  am,  therefore,  glad  of  this  oppor- 
tunity to  express  to  you  my  recogTiition  of  the  patience, 
devotion  and  skill  with  which  both  teachers  and  execu- 
tives played  the  parts  which  they  were  asked  to  play. 
The  proposals  of  the  War  Department  almost  invariably 
met  with  a  prompt  and  cordial  response,  and  a  willing- 
ness to  make  very  genuine  sacrifices  where  these  seemed 
to  be  required  by  the  nation's  military  need." 

1  Letter  of  December  30,  1918. 


THE    ENLISTED 


While  the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps  was 
performing  its  important  functions  on  the  college 
campus,  undergraduates  and  graduates  were  en- 
listing in  the  service  at  home  and  overseas,  and 
were  doing  the  duties  which  belong  to  enlisted 
men  on  training  ground  and  in  camp.  They 
had,  also,  for  a  year  and  a  half,  been  already  enlist- 
ing. The  numbers  of  such  enrolled  from  the  alumni 
and  students  of  each  college  and  university  it 
is  impossible  to  learn  with  fullness  and  accuracy. 
Indeed  the  number  of  such  men  is  not  usually 
knowTi  to  the  colleges  themselves.  For  graduates 
enlist  and  fail  to  inform  the  college;  and  even 
if  colleges  are  informed,  records  are  behind  the 
facts  of  enrollment  and  of  service.  But  from  re- 
ports made  by  colleges  and  universities  it  is  estimated 
that  not  far  from  180,000  graduates  and  under- 
graduates were  enrolled  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States  outside  and  beyond  the  Army  Training  Corps 
of  the  autumn  of  1918.     They  were  found  in  all 


8G      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

branches  of  the  service.^  Of  course  the  infantry 
included  the  largest  share,  but  the  artillery  called 
out  a  peculiarly  commanding  response  in  the  men  of 
trained  brain.  Of  this  number  of  180,000,  about 
one-third  were  undergraduates.  The  120,000  who 
had  received  their  degrees  formed  about  one-third  of 
all  living  graduates.  The  proportion  enrolled  was 
simply  immense,  especially  as  one  considers  the  num- 
ber of  graduates  who  were  ineligible  by  reason  of  age 
or  of  physical  disabilities.  From  no  section  of  Amer- 
ican society  was  poured  forth  so  large  a  proportion  of 
soldiers.  The  reasons  for  an  offering  so  magnificent 
are  intimated  in  the  first  chapter. 

The  number  of  college  men,  however,  both  un- 

1  The  military  and  naval  service  is  a  general  term,  which, 
applied  to  specific  instances  of  service,  might  result  in  con- 
fusion. At  a  meeting  of  representatives  of  colleges,  held  at 
New  Haven,  May  10th,  1918,  a  definition  of  service,  military 
and  naval,  was  adopted.  By  this  definition  such  service 
includes : 

"  1.  Men  who  have  voluntarily  enlisted  or  who  have  been 
drafted  and  mustered  into  the  service;   and 

"  Men  who  have  been  commissioned  and  who  have  accepted 
the  commission  and  have  been  called  into  service. 

"  2.  Men  who  are  actually  engaged  in  service  in  Europe  with 
the  army  or  navy  as  workers  under  the  direction  of  the  Y.  M.  C. 
A.,  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Hebrew  Y.  M.  A.,  or  the  Red 
Cross. 

"  This  is  to  be  interpreted  as  including  men  engaged  in  am- 
bulance service,  whether  serving  directly  as  part  of  the  mili- 
tary organization,  or  in  some  semi-independent  iinit  as  the 
Norton-Harjes  unit." 


The  Enlisted  87 

dergraduate  and  graduate,  wlio  entered  the  service  it 
is  impossible  to  state  with  accuracy.  The  following 
table  is  based  largely  on  figures  approved  by  the  sev- 
eral hundred  colleges  and  universities  concerned,  and 
also  in  part  on  estimates  furnished  by  the  institutions 
themselves,  or  by  others  knowing  the  academic  con- 
ditions. For  it  is  to  be  acknowledged  that  many  col- 
leges themselves  are  ignorant  of  the  number  of  gradu- 
ates or  former  students  who  were  enrolled.  The  in- 
stitutions of  each  State  gave  the  following  quotas :  — 

Alabama 1,514  Maryland 2,138 

Arizona    271  Massachusetts 14,157 

Arkansas    863  Michigan    9,726 

California    7,037  Minnesota    3,499 

Colorado 2,262  Missouri 4,378 

Connecticut 9,758  Montana    1,281 

Delaware    264  Nebraska    2,487 

District    of    Colum-  Nevada 298 

bia 855  New  Hampshire  .  . .  1,668 

Florida  606  New  Jersey 4,261 

Georgia    2,190  New  Mexico 169 

Hawaii    41  New  York 14,635 

Idaho    426  North    Carolina 2,855 

Illinois   8,885  North  Dakota 1,019 

Indiana    5,817  Ohio    10,143 

Iowa    5,994  Oklahoma 1,548 

Kansas   3,069  Oregon   1,340 

Kentucky     2,979  Pennsylvania    14,423 

Louisiana    1,095  Porto  Kico    19 

Maine  1,735  Rhode  Island 1,396 


88     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

South  Carolina 1,281   Washin^on     4,618 

Tennessee 3,065   West  Virginia 1,343 

Texas    2,325    Wisconsin    3,837 

Utah   1,608  

Vermont 1,684        Grand  total 178,824 

Virginia 4,071 

These  tables  serve  to  call  out  certain  impressive 
inferences. 

The  statistics  prove  the  active  loyalty  of  college 
students  and  of  college  graduates.  They  give  no  in- 
timation of  a  fugitive  and  cloistered  virtue.  They 
convey  no  suggestion  of  remoteness  from  human  con- 
cerns or  of  indifference  to  human  problems  or  of  con- 
tempt for  human  sufferings.  They  disprove  the  oc- 
casional and  loudly  expressed  belief,  or  the  quietly 
held  suspicion,  that  the  college  youth  of  America  are 
characterized  by  gilded  superficiality  (and  not  a  very 
deep  gilding  either),  by  contemptuous  thoughtless- 
ness, and  by  unreasoning  selfishness.  They  prove 
that  the  college  heart,  the  college  mind,  the  college 
conscience,  are  as  sound  as  oak,  as  true  as  steel,  as 
pure  as  the  best  diamond. 

The  statistics  also  give  evidence  of  the  worth  of 
the  American  system  of  the  higher  education.  This 
system  has  been  passing  through  transformations. 
From  the  classical  to  the  scientific,  from  the  ancient 
linguistic  to  the  modem  linguistic  foundation,  from 


The  Enlisted  89 

the  natural  sciences  to  the  social  sciences,  has  pro- 
ceeded the  academic  movement.  Content  has  been 
altered,  emphasis  transferred,  methods  changed. 
But  the  purpose  has  remained  deep  and  permanent. 
The  moving  spirit  has  suffered  no  "  sea  "  or  other 
"  change."  To  educate  their  mind  to  think,  to  pro- 
mote reflectiveness  as  a  mood,  to  transmute  knowl- 
edge into  wisdom,  to  train  the  heart  unto  tenderness 
without  gushingness,  to  give  a  sense  of  aspiration 
without  visionariness,  to  make  sympathy  broad  with- 
out becoming  thin  or  artificial,  to  give  delicacy  to  the 
moral  nature  without  over-refinement,  to  discipline 
resistance  without  stubborness  and  firmness  without 
obstinacy,  to  give  to  character  graciousness  without 
obsequiousness,  to  the  gentleman  aggressiveness  with- 
out obtrusiveness  —  such  are  some  intimations  of  the 
purpose  of  the  higher  education.  These  purposes 
have  been  maintained.  The  higher  education  has 
kept  watch  to  insure  the  integrity  of  the  individual 
conscience  and  the  soundness  of  the  individual  in- 
tellect.    The  result  is  superb. 

A  further  inference,  of  a  broader  and  more  im- 
mediate significance,  relates  to  the  essential  worthi- 
ness of  the  American  society  whence  are  drawn  these 
youths.  They  are  in  a  sense  picked  youth.  They 
represent  a  saving  remnant  of  a  long  educational 
process  of  their  generation  and  of  generations  pre- 


00     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

ceding.  Each  of  them  is  perhaps  one  in  thirty  of 
the  companions  who  began  their  primary  school  with 
them.  Yet  they  are  in  fact  part  and  parcel  of  the 
whole  community.  From  their  integrity  we  have  a 
right  to  infer  the  integrity  of  the  whole  group 
whence  they  have  been  drawn. 

One  further  inference  is  to  be  added.  It  is  the 
inference  that  the  governors  of  the  American  colleges 
may,  in  modesty,  give  to  themselves  heartiest  con- 
gratulations. The  teacher  in  the  American  college, 
in  becoming  a  teacher,  gives  up  many  of  the  prizes 
of  life  which  allure  not  a  few  of  his  contemporaries 
and  comrades.  He  surrenders  every  hope  of  wealth. 
He  knows  he  is  to  be  contented  with  a  simple  com- 
petency. He  crushes  out  any  desire,  even  if  he  ever 
had  one,  of  general  public  distinction.  Yet  he  does 
put  before  himself  the  belief  that  he  is,  in  quietness, 
educating  men  to  think  clearly,  that  he  is  inspiring 
men  to  make  a  life  rather  than  a  livelihood,  and  that 
he  is  training  leaders  for  the  more  public  concerns 
which  he  is  not  privileged  to  undertake.  These  re- 
wards are  more  precious  than  rubies.  His  class  room 
becomes  a  gateway  to  the  field  of  broad  service.  His 
chapel  talks  may  be  recalled  in  straightening  out  a 
battle  line  or  in  obeying  a  military  command.  His 
personal  counsel  may  aid  in  planning  a  campaign, 
civil  or  military.     These  and  similar  rewards  of  the 


The  Enlisted  91 

college  teacher  —  the  real  force  in  the  American  col- 
lege —  are  also  rewards  which  belong  in  their  proper 
share  to  every  trustee  and  benefactor.  They  are  re- 
wards, moreover,  which  are  given  to  all  who  are 
privileged  to  aid  in  making  the  American  college  a 
teacher  of  wisdom  in  and  for  a  democratic  govern- 
ment and  a  creator  of  forces  for  service  on  land  and 
sea,  under  the  sea,  and  in  the  air. 


YI 


COLLEGE    OFFICERS    IN    WAE,    SERVICE 

The  service  offered  by  the  officers  of  the  colleges  was 
quite  as  impressive  as  that  rendered  by  the  students 
and  graduates.  The  enrollment  was  made  up  of 
professors  of  each  department  and  by  deans,  presi- 
dents and  other  executives  of  every  order.  Of  all 
departments,  the  medical  naturally  furnished  the 
greatest  proportion.  Of  every  one  hundred  officers 
who  entered  the  service  more  than  one-half  were 
found  to  be  medical  —  physicians,  surgeons  and 
teachers.  The  assigTiment  to  their  new  work  was 
usually  made  on  the  basis  of  their  special  training 
and  preferences.  Teachers  of  surgery  became  heads 
of  surgical  units  in  the  field  or  in  base  hospitals. 
Teachers  of  bacteriology  and  of  public  health  were 
enrolled  as  health  commissioners  in  Roumania  and 
Servia.  Teachers  of  pathology  set  up  their  labora- 
tories at  Rouen.  Teachers  of  ophthalmology  were 
drafted  as  special  examiners  in  the  office  of  the 
surgeon  general.     Teachers  of  nervous  diseases  cared 

92 


College  Officers  in  War  Service  93 

for  large  areas  of  distressing  illness  in  American 
camps  and  French  cities.  Teachers  of  dermatology 
gave  their  wisdom  in  criminal  and  other  most  serious 
problems.  Teachers  of  pharmacology  found  abun- 
dant opportunities  for  the  compounding  of  drugs. 
Teachers  of  pediatrics  were  busy  with  the  pxoblems 
which  war  creates  in  children.  Teachers  of  physiol- 
ogy and  psychology  found  the  crises  made  by  shell- 
shock  most  compelling.  Teachers  of  preventive 
medicine  were  required  to  inspect  drinking  water 
and  other  health  conditions  as  presented  in  many 
camps.  In  other  fields  than  the  medical,  equally 
important  services  were  given.  Professors  of  botany 
were  drafted  into  the  examination  of  botanical  war 
products  and  into  work  for  the  United  States  Agri- 
cultural Department.  Professors  of  chemistry  were 
called  into  chemical  research ;  professors  of  physics 
into  the  study  of  methods  for  submarine  protection; 
professors  of  transportation  into  work  for  the  War 
Board ;  professors  of  anthropology  into  the  laying  out 
of  camps ;  professors  of  forestry  into  experimenting 
on  farms  and  in  forests ;  professors  of  law  into  serv- 
ice as  judge  advocates;  professors  of  politics  and 
government  into  lecturing  on  patriotism;  professors 
of  lumbering  into  estimating  the  cost  of  building 
ships  and  camps ;  professors  of  French  into  teaching 
conversational  French  to  nurses  and  doctors.     Such 


04     Colleges  and  Vnivcrsities  in  the  Great  War 

assignments  were  normal,  natural  and  were  also 
proved  to  be  effective. 

But  other  assignments  were  made,  which  were  in- 
deed less  normal  and  proved  to  be  far  less  effective. 
It  is  not  hard  to  present  examples.  Professors  of 
geology  were  commandeered  as  inspectors  of  fabrics. 
Professors  of  astronomy  were  made  instructors  in 
language.  Professors  of  economics  were  selected  as 
instructors  in  military  science.  In  the  early  stages 
of  the  war,  in  France,  under  the  democratic  influence, 
discrimination  of  ability  for  duty  was  not  practiced. 
A  French  professor  of  chemistry,  the  recipient  of  a 
i^obel  prize,  was  in  one  instance  made  the  guardian 
of  a  bridge.  Bvit  in  general,  be  it  said,  assignments 
were  made  with  discrimination.  It  is  to  be  added, 
moreover,  that  the  power  and  worth  manifested  in  one 
department  of  teaching  and  research  often  seemed 
to  prepare  the  worker  for  service  in  a  department 
apparently  quite  unlike  or  unrelated.  The  method 
of  learning  and  of  teaching  was  proved  to  be  more 
important  than  the  content  of  instruction.  A  mind 
well  educated  is  able  to  turn  itself  with  ease  and  ef- 
fectiveness unto  problems  lying  in  other  fields  than 
those  of  its  own  peculiar  cultivation.  The  higher 
education  consists  less  in  having  learned  than  in 
ability  to  learn. 

Both   in   the   camp   and   on   the   campus,   college 


College  Oncers  in  War  Service  95 

officers  usually  manifested  a  spirit  of  cooperation. 
This  cooperation  belonged,  not  only  to  members  of 
their  own  class,  but  also  to  the  class  unacademic. 
Professors  are  usually  individualists.  In  the  war 
professors  learned  the  art  of  team  play,  as  thor- 
oughly as  the  football  team  learns  it  on  the  gTidiron. 
Professors  are  usually  experts  in  their  own  field, 
and  in  no  other.  In  the  war  they  learned  that  their 
own  scholarly  attainments  were  to  be  united  with  the 
equally  scholarly  attainments  of  other  experts.  They 
learned  to  deal  with  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men : 
to  be  patient  with  both  presumption  and  stupidity,  to 
be  forebearing  with  ignorance,  to  work  with  laziness, 
to  be  gracious  toward  selfishness, —  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results  out  of  conditions  favorable  or  un- 
favorable to  one's  immediate  or  remote  purpose. 

The  duties  thus  assigned  w^ere  usually  done  with 
both  judgment  and  enthusiasm.  One  teacher,  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
wrote :  "  Am  very  busy,  with  nothing  but  engines, 
gears  and  cranks  and  wheels  from  morning  to  night. 
It  is  easily  the  most  interesting  work  I  ever  did. 
Ah,  but  this  is  the  life.  I  am  beginning  to  realize 
that  I  never  lived  before  —  and  I  may  not  live  much 
longer.  You  don't  know  how  it  sets  a  man  to  think- 
ing, when  a  heavy  T.  i^.  T.  bomb  drops  near  him  in 
the  night  time  in  the  streets  of  a  great  city.     It  does 


OG      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

not  make  liim  afraid ;  it  simply  makes  him  lose  his  re- 
spect for  mankind. 

"  But  it  is  all  for  Liberty."  ^ 

Another  teacher  having  charge  of  French  refugees 
wrote :  "  But  men  may  come  and  men  may  go,  the 
stream  of  '  Rapatries  '  goes  on  forever,  with  all  its 
joy  and  pathos.  Some  1,500  per  day  hereafter  be- 
ing- absorbed  into  France  and  cared  for  tenderly  by 
weary,  plucky,  courageous  France,  who  has  not  be- 
gun to  get  to  the  limit  of  her  resources,  in  my  judg- 
ment, and  would  fight  on  for  ten  years,  if  necessary, 
paying  whatever  price  is  necessary  for  victory.  .  .  . 
The  French  people  go  right  on  absorbing  at  the  rate 
of  1,000  to  1,500  a  day,  the  lame,  the  blind,  the  halt, 
the  sick,  the  young  and  the  old  and  the  insane  that 
Germany  is  sending  them,  including  many  other  fine 
people,  but  no  able-bodied  men  and  very  few  able- 
bodied  women,  except  those  vnth.  small  children. 
Have  carried  eighty-four  people  so  far  to-day,  one 
hundred  yesterday  and  more  the  day  before."  ^ 

In  the  midst  of  this  outpouring  of  loyal  and  of 
royal  service  on  the  part  of  the  colleges  and  of  in- 
dividual teachers,  were  heard  occasional  notes  of 
either  rebelliousness  or  of  indifference.     Suspicions 

1  Letter  from  Professor  Riley  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology. 

zWilmot  V.  Metcalf,  Fisk  University  News,  February,  1918, 
pages  18  and  19. 


College  Officers  in  War  Service  97 

of  disloyalty  on  the  part  of  teachers  were,  though  in- 
frequently, held.  Such  suspicions  gave  the  govern- 
ment reason  for  watchfulness.  In  certain  instances, 
these  suspicions  proved  to  be  unfounded.  In  other 
instances  the  evidence  was  sustained.  Hugo  Mun- 
sterberg,  Professor  of  Psychology  in  Harvard  Uni- 
versity since  the  year  1892,  a  man  born  in  Germany 
and  educated  in  German  institutions,  at  one  time  a 
professor  in  the  University  of  Freiburg,  was  under 
constant  surveillance.  His  death  has  not  removed 
certain  evidence  of  his  cooperation  with  the  Kaiser's 
government.  The  only  instance  that  has  come  into 
the  public  notice,  of  the  removal  of  a  college  execu- 
tive, was  found  in  the  presidency  of  Baldwin-Wallace, 
a  college  of  Ohio.  After  an  investigation,  made  by 
a  special  committee  of  Methodist  bishops  —  the  col- 
lege itself  being  of  that  denomination  —  the  presi- 
dent was  removed  from  office.  The  purpose  of  the 
removal  was  at  least  two-fold,  to  serve  as  a  warning 
to  academic  executives  and  professors  and  also  as  a 
guarantee  of  the  patriotism  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church. 

In  general,  however,  it  is  to  be  firmly  said  that 
the  officers  in  the  American  college  who  remained  at 
their  desks  and  their  duties  were  as  loyal,  and,  some 
of  them  at  least,  as  useful  by  address  and  essay,  as 
well    as  by   conferences   and   conventions,    as   their 


98      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

brothers  who  went  forth  into  the  field,  or  who  worked 
directly  in  their  laboratories  on  munition  formulas. 
They  kept  the  academic  home  fires  burning.  They 
gave  wisdom  in  counsel,  strength  to  the  will,  and  cour- 
age to  the  heart  of  the  individual  and  of  the  com- 
munity. 

The  contribution  thus  made  by  men  and  women, 
teachers  in  American  colleges,  was  as  diverse  as  the 
forces  and  conditions  that  constitute  warfare  or  that 
compose  the  American  college.  The  devotion  thus 
given  was  of  the  highest  quality.  It  stood  at  once 
for  duty  and  for  honor.  Like  their  younger  sons, 
they  held  not  their  own  lives  dear  unto  them.  Some 
did  not  return  to  their  desks  or  their  books,  and 
some  of  those  who  did  return  bear  in  body  and  in 
spirit  the  lasting  marks  of  their  inferno. 


VII 


THE    SPIRIT    OF    THE    STUDENT    SOLDIER 

The  spirit  of  the  student  soldier  who  entered  the 
service  was  one  of  intellectual  understanding.  He 
appreciated  the  issues  personal,  national  and  inter- 
national, which  were  wrapped  up  in  his  enrollment 
and  commitment.  To  this  understanding  and  ap- 
preciation was  added  a  willingness  to  do  all  and  to 
be  all  essential  to  the  securing  of  the  war's  ultimate 
purpose.  One  would  hesitate  to  say  that  these  gTcat 
comprehensions  were  the  property  of  the  student 
only.  They  belonged  to  all  citizens,  yet  it  would  not 
be  unjust  to  intimate  that  the  understanding  made 
by  him  was  at  least  as  definite  and  considerate  as  that 
belonging  to  many.  Of  course  the  simple  element 
of  heroic  enthusiasm  and  devotion  is  an  integral 
part  of  all  true  and  worthy  men.  Such  a  deposit 
is  a  common  part  of  our  common  humanity. 

In  the  mind  and  heart  of  the  collegian  was  found 
a  mighty  determination  to  fight  until  the  proper  vic- 
tory was  won.  The  purpose  was  well  put  into  some 
singing  verses  by  a  graduate  of  Western  Reserve 

99 


100     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

University  near  the  time  of  America's  entrance. 
EdAvard  Bushnoll  wrote  these  lines  which  were  sung 
in  many  amiy  camps:  — 

"UNCLE  SAM" 

1 

So  you've  drawni  your  sword  again,  Uncle  Sam! 
You're  lined  up  with  fighting  men,  Uncle  Sam! 

For,  when  freedom  is  at  stake. 

You  will  fight  for  honor's  sake; 

And  you'll  fight  till  tyrants  quake.  Uncle  Sam. 

2 
We  know  war  is  not  your  game,  Uncle  Sam. 
'Twas  at  peace  you  made  your  fame,  Uncle  Sam. 

And  'tis  always  with  regret 

That  you  make  a  war-like  threat; 

But  they've  never  whipped  you  yet.  Uncle  Sam. 

3 

We  will  sail  on  all  the  seas.  Uncle  Sam, 
Without  saying  "  if  "  or  "  please,"  Uncle  Sam. 
We'll  not  wear  the  Kaiser's  tag, 
And  we'll  fly  no  checkered  rag. 
For  Old  Glory  is  our  flag.  Uncle  Sam. 

4 

Let  the  Eagle  flap  his  wings.  Uncle  Sam. 

These  are  sorry  days  for  kings,  Uncle  Sam. 
And  the  Kaiser  and  his  crew 
Will  be  missing,  when  they're  through 
With  the  old  Red,  White  and  Blue,  Uncle  Sam. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier        101 

5 

We  are  ready  now  to  serve,  Uncle  Sam. 

We  have  money,  men  and  nerve,  Uncle  Sam. 

We  will  stick  through  thick  and  thin. 

Till  we  show  them  in  Berlin 

That  with  God  we're  going  to  win,  Uncle  Sam. 

Such  verses  were  expressive  of  the  grip  of  the  will  of 
the  college  man  to  fight  it  through  whether  it  took 
all  summer  or  all  winter. 

Both  before  and  after  enlisting  the  simple  de- 
mocracy of  the  army  was  made  plain.  This  democ- 
racy belonged  in  the  first  place  to  the  privates  in 
the  ranks.  Of  course,  a  lack  of  democracy  charac- 
terized the  relationship  between  the  officers  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  privates  on  the  other ;  but  equality 
and  fraternity  did  distinguish  those  of  similar  mili- 
tary condition.  Among  the  men  in  the  ranks,  the 
human  was  the  chief  note  of  their  song.  A  British 
mother  wrote  in  the  preface  to  "  A  Midshipman's 
Log  "  saying,  that  among  those  who  are  fighting  for 
their  country  and  for  the  triumph  of  right  and  jus- 
tice, there  could  be  no  class  or  distinction.  The 
members  of  the  privileged  class  were  privileged  only 
in  being  leaders  —  first  in  the  field,  and  foremost  at 
the  post  of  danger.^ 

A  son,  too,  of  distinguished  American  parentage 

1 "  From  Dartmouth  to  the  Dardanelles  —  A  Midshipman's 
Log  " —  edited  by  his  mother,  page  viii. 


102      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

bore  out  of  his  experience  similar  testimony.  Vic- 
tor Chapman  wrote  in  September  of  the  year  1914 
saying:  *'  The  people  I  am  thrown  with  are,  for  the 
moment,  Polish  in  majority,  for  they  are  a  crowd 
which  came  together  from  Cambrai.  But  they  are 
of  almost  all  nationalities  and  all  stations  and  ages 
of  life.  I  am  most  friendly  with  a  little  Spaniard 
from  Malaga.  He  has  been  a  newspaper  reporter 
in  London  and  got  tired  of  doing  nothing  there,  so 
he  enlisted  here.  So  far  as  I  have  seen  I  am  the 
only  American  (the  others  having  been  sent  to  Rouen 
a  day  or  two  before  I  enlisted),  but  I  have  seen  a 
couple  of  negroes.  There  are  about  thirty  Alsatians, 
a  few  Russians  and  a  few  Belgians,  one  or  two  Ger- 
mans, a  Turk,  and  even  a  Chinaman  arrived  this 
morning.  There  are  Greeks  and  Russian  Jews,  and 
probably  many  I  have  not  noticed."  ^  His  experi- 
ence illustrates  the  remark  in  the  Xew  Testament 
that  God  "  hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men 
for  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth." 

The  whole  college  order  was  also  pervaded  by 
great  sympathy  for  the  suffering,  the  sorrowing,  the 
afflicted;  and  not  only  with  those  who  were  thus 
sadly  conditioned,  but  also  for  all  men  as  men. 
With  this  sympathy  was  united  a  mighty  desire  for 

1  "  Victor  Chapman's  Letters  from  France  "  with  Memoir  by 
John  Jay  Chapman,  page  45. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier        103 

power  to  serve.  Deep  emotional  excitement  may 
atrophy,  in  weak  natures,  the  force  of  the  will.  Such 
a  cutting  of  the  nerves  is  not  liable,  however,  to 
occur  in  the  experience  of  college  men ;  for  they  have 
been  tempered  in  the  schools  not  only  of  learning, 
but  also  of  observation,  of  suffering,  and  of  re- 
joicing. An  American  schoolmaster  wrote  from  an 
American  hospital  in  France  of  his  routine :  "  I 
begin  every  night  at  eight  and  work  twelve  hours 
without  stopping  a  moment.  I  wouldn't  miss  it  for 
the  world.  We've  taken  everything  in  the  way  of 
wounded,  mostly  Americans,  but  also  French,  Moroc- 
cans, Malays,  and  all  conditions  from  slightly 
wounded  to  the  pitifully  maimed  remnants  of  hu- 
man life,  wrecked  beyond  all  hope  I  have  been 
stretcher  bearer,  have  helped  undress  and  bathe  the 
wounded,  taken  them  to  the  X-ray  room,  and  to  the 
operating  table,  held  their  hands  while  ether  was 
administered,  and  at  the  bedside,  getting  them  ready 
for  the  rest  camps  farther  back.  In  all  this  labor 
of  love,  which  is  real  work,  I  have  heard  not  one 
murmur  of  complaint,  only  words  of  enthusiasm  and 
a  desire  to  get  back  into  the  game.  People  say  they 
are  '  magnificent,'  but  we  have  no  word  yet  coined  to 
describe  the  spirit  of  our  fighting  and  wounded  sol- 
diers. It  is  beyond  analysis  and  almost  divine.  It 
makes  you  want  to  drop  on  your  knees  and  thank 


104      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

God  for  the  power  he  puts  into  his  children  to  bear 
their  suffering  with  such  fortitude  and  courage. 
One  longs  for  arms  of  limitless  extent  to  take  the 
whole  blessed  lot  of  them  next  to  his  heart  and  tell 
them  how  proud  is  America  and  the  whole  world  of 
their  valor  and  strength,  and  how  all  of  us  love 
them  and  are  determined  that  they  shall  win.  I 
have  learned  to  pray  as  I  never  prayed  before  for 
power  to  see  this  glorious  work  through  to  the  end, 
power  to  be  of  the  utmost  service  to  our  men  and 
their  brothers  whose  ideals  are  ours,  and  but  for 
whose  tremendous  sacrifice  and  heroic  defense  the 
human  wolves  would  have  been  at  our  own  doors. 
Folks  at  home  do  not  realize  that  the  war  is  on, 
but  here  in  a  military  hospital!  Oh  God,  it's  here 
we  get  the  taste  !  I  am  going  every  night  till  I  leave 
the  front. 

"  School  teaching  isn't  in  it  with  this  work.  To 
kneel  before  a  hero  and  untie  his  shoes,  and  to  get  a 
smile  from  a  wounded  man  lying  between  sheets  for 
the  first  time  in  seven  months;  to  get  a  word  of 
thanks  from  one  to  whom  you  have  given  a  tin  cup 
of  black  coffee,  is  a  greater  reward  than  all  the  pay 
that  all  the  combined  schools  in  the  United  States 
could  give.  We  are  all  working  our  very  heads  and 
feet  off.  I  can't  write  more  now,  though  I  am  so 
full  of  it  I  am  nearly  bursting.     I  must  get  some 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier        105 

rest  for  the  long  night  ahead."  Such  a  union  of 
sympathy  with  a  power  to  relieve  the  wounded  and 
to  give  succor  to  the  dying  was  the  not  infrequent 
experience  of  the  best  college  soldiers. 

The  simple  joy  and  exultation  of  it  all  seemed  to 
belong  with  a  peculiar  rapture  to  the  college  man. 
One  of  distinguished  name  wrote  to  his  sister :  "  I 
hadn't  realized  until  lately  what  a  wealth  of  thrill, 
and  tense  joy,  I  had  been  missing  in  the  tame  student 
days.  Whenever  a  flare  or  star  shell  lights  up  ISTo 
Man's  Land  at  night,  turning  every  twig  and  stone 
into  crystal,  sharply  outlined  against  a  jet  black 
sky  and  ground,  it  gives  me  a  feeling  of  wonder  and 
throbbing  excitement  that  is  different  from  anything 
else.     I  hope  it  will  not  become  ordinary  too  soon." 

Yet,  in  this  exultation  of  the  soldier,  the  student 
easily  habituated  himself  to  things  as  they  come  and 
go.  He  became  a  worshiper  at  the  altar  of  the  God 
of  things  as  they  are.  The  outer  service  seemed  to 
transform  the  inner  man.  He  is  not  what  he  was. 
The  following  confession  of  a  Harvard  man,  pur- 
posely made  anon^inously,  is  almost  as  representative 
as  it  is  impressive :  "  Until  last  winter  I  was,  I 
suppose,  what  most  of  the  world  calls  a  rich  young 
man.  That  is  to  say,  I  had  enough  money  to  avoid 
worry  about  the  ordinary  luxuries  of  life.  A  great 
many  doors  of  society  were  open  to  me  by  reason  of 


lOG      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

long-formed  family  associations.  I  went  to  a  very 
fashionable  boarding-school,  and  afterwards  to  a 
large  university. 

"  j\Iy  chief  interests  were  aesthetic  ones,  and  my 
college  days,  aside  from  the  friendships  of  them, 
were  valued  accordingly.  I  studied  hard  enough  to 
keep  a  keen  interest  in  these  things,  and  what  I  didn't 
know,  I  '  bluffed.'  Society  is  gullible.  I  talked 
about  Zuloaga  twice  before  I  saw  his  paintings. 
With  beautiful  fluency  and  complete  ignorance  I  dis- 
cussed the  '  Agamemnon  '  of  Aeschylus,  the  '  Thoen- 
issae  '  of  Euripedes,  hydraulic  machinery,  the  Shinto 
religion,  St,  Paul,  the  Russian  government.  It 
made  no  difference;  I  knew  a  little,  I  bluffed  su- 
perbly, and  I  revelled  in  the  joy  of  '  holding  '  dinner 
tables.  So  you  see  how  it  was  —  everything  to  look 
forward  to,  little  to  regret.  Life  was  good;  friends 
were  many. 

"  When  the  war  came  I  was  considering  literature 
as  a  profession.  I  tried  for  a  commission  immedi- 
ately, but  unfortunately  missed  it.  Influence  didn't 
work.     So  now  I'm  a  '  buck  '  private. 

"  I  sleep  in  a  tent,  stand  in  line  in  any  weather 
for  '  chow.'  I  dress,  because  my  work  demands  it, 
most  of  the  time  in  overalls,  and  I  do  what  I'm  told. 
I  have  emptied  garbage  cans  and  cuspidors,  chopped 
wood,  shovelled  coal,  dug  holes,  done  clerical  work 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier        107 

and  carpentering  work.  I  have  been  yelled  at  by 
irate  '  non-coms  '  for  being  a  fool. 

"  They  were  quite  right.  A  fool  is  one  who  is 
ignorant,  you  see.  I  can  tell  you  things  about  the 
meals  at  Agathon's  house,  when  Socrates  dined,  and 
drank  from  the  wine  cooler,  but  I  had  no  idea  until 
quite  recently  how  to  do  a  gi*eat  many  of  the  jobs 
I've  mentioned.  I  remember  reading,  by  the  way, 
F.  W.  Taylor's  '  Principles  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.' It  tells  you  among  other  things,  how  to 
shovel  with  a  minimum  of  effort  and  for  a  maximum 
of  results.  But  when  you  are  one  of  three  men  who 
are  getting  coal  out  of  a  freight-car  that  must  be 
moved  in  two  hours  and  a  half,  you  forget  what  he 
said  or  wonder  if  he  ever  shovelled.  Of  course,  I 
drilled  awkwardly  too.  They  were  quite  right  —  I 
was  a  fool. 

"  The  physical  hardships  of  such  a  life  one  quickly 
becomes  used  to.  If  it  is  cold,  you  learn  to  sleep 
with  your  clothes  on.  If  there  is  no  chance  to  bathe, 
why,  of  course,  you  don't  bathe.  If  you  get  wet,  you 
curse  a  bit,  and  remark  to  your  nearest  neighbor  that 
you  are  '  out  of  luck.'  This  phrase  embodies  almost 
the  complete  philosophy  of  enlisted  men.  It's  not  so 
unsatisfactory;  it  has  the  virtue  of  truth.  And  if 
you're  not  fatalistic  enough  to  accept  the  verity  that 
you  are,  and  are  going  to  be,  either  in  or  out  of 


108      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

luck,  the  remark  may  be  used  perfectly  correctly  as 
a  consolatory,  flattering,  or  challenging  comment  — 
or  simply  as  a  pleasantry.  Indeed  life  is  reduced 
to  almost  a  purely  physical  basis.  Obedience  is  re- 
quired, but  intellect  sufficient  only  for  obedience. 

"  The  ethics  of  the  men  in  the  ranks  are  a  fair 
enough  sort.  They  do  not  allow  much  meanness; 
they  preach  generosity  and  obligingness.  But  they 
do  include,  not  necessarily  of  course,  blasphemy,  foul- 
ness, intoxication.  It's  up  to  the  gods,  the  average 
soldier  thinks,  whether  you  are  what  can  fairly  be 
termed  a  good  man.  As  long  as  you  do  what  you're 
told,  your  morale  may  be  what  you  please,  Calig- 
ulan  or  Christian.  Of  course  there  is  little  of  the 
spiritual  in  camp.  You  may  have  loved  Dante's 
'  Inferno,'  but  you  read  wireless  code-books  or  Cap- 
tain Parker's  notes.  You  realize  that  Dante  lived  a 
very  long  time  ago;  and  that  he  is  dead.  You  re- 
member arguments  you  had  in  college,  near  some 
hospitable  fire,  about  Plato's  idea  of  the  Abstract 
or  Thomas  Aquinas's  of  Immortality.  Omar's  line 
comes  back  to  you  —  you  did  '  come  out  by  the  same 
door  that  in  you  went.'  The  four  brown  walls  of 
canvas  are  still  around  you.  The  concrete  remains. 
It  doesn't  matter  if  you  would  like  to  go  to  the  little 
French  restaurant  with  so-and-so,  and  talk  about 
'  Comus  '  or  what  a  shabby  way  Bacon  treated  Essex. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier        109 

'  Fall  Out.'  You  proceed  to  do  so,  and  are  armed 
with  a  shovel,  or  a  bucket  or  a  monkey-wrench."  ^ 

This  spirit  of  adjustment  is  a  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can quality,  but  the  American  quality  is  much  more. 
It  is  a  quality  of  exultation  and  exhilaration.  The 
American  spirit  is  the  intellectual  quality  touched 
by  enthusiasm.  A  student  who  was  accepted  by  the 
Foreign  Legion  of  the  French  Army,  writes  to  a 
professor  in  his  college :  "  Your  poilu  has  burst  his 
cocoon  and  stands  glittering  before  the  world  —  an 
Aspirant.  He  is  proud  of  himself  —  and  more  at 
peace  than  ever  before  in  his  life.  .  .  . 

"  You  ask  me  to  tell  you  the  commonest  events  of 
my  life.  I  doubt  whether  that  will  be  possible,  for 
I  have  chosen  a  75  attacking  battery,  but  I  shall  keep 
a  moment-to-moment  journal  for  you  and  for  others 
to  whom  I  am  not  afraid  to  reveal  myself.  If  I  get 
through  safely  we'll  laugh  over  it  —  and  if  I  pass 
out,  it  vrill  be  sent  to  you. 

"  Before  this  reaches  you  I  shall  be  at  the  front. 
I  regret  that  it  will  not  be  with  my  own.  .  .  .  They 
are  wonderful,  and  Europe  is  breathing  a  new  air  be- 
cause of  them.  They  have  the  vision  —  and  the 
dreams  of  old  men  are  coming  true.  I  wish  I  could 
tell  you  the  great  pride  and  faith  and  elation  the 

1  Notes  of  a  "Buck"  Private  —  Harvard  Alumni  Bulletin, 
14th  Feb.,  1918. 


110     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

recognition  of  their  spirit  gives  us.  To  be  an  Ameri- 
can is  to-day  the  proudest  thing  in  the  world.  But 
even  when  one  is  not  fighting  as  one  of  them  —  even 
though  he  wears  another  color,  he  is  fighting  with 
the  American  spirit  and  the  American  dream.  Do 
you  wonder  that  I  am  perfectly  at  peace  with  my- 
self? 

"  It  is  with  such  emotions  that  I  go  to  the  front. 
Think  of  me  as  having  believed  something  passion- 
ately enough  not  to  have  accepted  rejections,  as  hav- 
ing foimd  a  place  for  myself  when  it  was  refused 
me  time  and  again,  as  going  into  the  fire  with  head 
up  and  laughing  lips  because  I  am  an  officer  of 
France  and  an  American.  And  if  I'm  killed  don't 
call  me  '  poor  fellow.'  I  shall  deserve  better  than 
that."  1 

Such  enthusiasm  is  representative,  interpretative, 
and  contagious.  It  might  give  the  impression  of 
being  transient  like  the  white  crest  of  the  break- 
ing wave,  but  it  was  really  more  sustaining  and 
proved  to  be  more  permanent  than  seemed  possible. 
The  student  soldier  took  the  long  look  and  also  did 
the  nearest  duty.  A  I^Torth  Carolina  student  wrote 
to  the  president  of  his  university.  Dr.  Graham,  a 
beloved  president  who  died  recently,   saying :     "I 

1  Letter  from  an  officer  of  France  and  an  American  to  Pro- 
fessor Charles  T.  Copeland,  Harvard  University. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier         111 

am  about  to  leave  for  France,  aware  what  going 
there  means,  and  glad  to  go.  Before  I  go  I  want 
to  send  my  love  to  you  and  Carolina,  because  you 
two  both  send  me  and  at  the  same  time  make  me 
hate  to  go,  because  I  cherish  you  with  the  same  love 
I  bear  my  parents.  I  am  not  a  single-purposed  man ; 
if  I  have  one  dominant  desire  I  don't  recognize  it. 
But  the  resultant  of  all  my  desires  to  live  and  to 
serve  is  a  purpose  to  fit  myself  to  come  back  and 
sen'^e  through  Carolina.  This  purpose  I  have,  of 
course,  subordinated  to  what  the  army  may  require 
of  me  until  peace  is  won.  But  I  am  fighting  to  stop 
Germany,  and  not  for  the  joy  of  fighting.  I  hate 
war  and  its  whole  stupid  machinery  as  much  as  I 
love  its  opposite  —  the  free  creative  life  of  Carolina. 
I  don't  intend  to  run  from  the  fact  that  war  is  wrong 
any  more  than  T  intend  to  run  from  war  itself  be- 
cause it  is  painful. 

"  Therefore,  while  I  am  glad  to  serve  in  this  war, 
I  still  maintain  that  peace  is  right  and  that  it  must 
bo  developed  by  training  and  organizing  man  for 
peace  even  better  than  he  is  now  trained  and  organ- 
ized for  war." 

The  spirit  of  the  American  student  soldier  was 
quite  akin  to  the  spirit  of  the  men  of  Oxford  and 
other  British  universities,  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  of  the  provincial  universities  of  France.     All 


112      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

were  touched  by  the  same  patriotic  enthusiasms,  by 
the  same  sense  of  romance  and  of  freedom.  These 
sentiments  were,  be  it  confessed,  like  unto  the  senti- 
ments of  the  German  university  students  in  their 
love  of  "  Fatherland."  But  how  remote  were  these 
enthusiasms  from  the  Germanic  in  their  sense  of 
freedom !  For  the  Anglo-Saxon  has  been  trained  in 
a  school  of  personal  honor  and  of  truth-telling.  The 
English  and  the  Americans  have  been  taught  to  hate 
spying  and  lying  and  to  despise  the  spy  and  the  liar. 
The  English  and  Americans  have  been  trained  to 
play  game^  and  to  take  part  in  sport,  not  simply  as 
hygienic  conditions,  but  for  and  of  manliness.  They 
have  been  educated  in  the  atmosphere  of  freedom; 
and  the  German  student  has  been  trained  in  the 
prison  house  of  unquestioning  obedience  to  the  state. 
It  was  a  great  spirit  which  dwelt  in  the  heart  of 
the  soldier  student  and  which  prompted  him  to 
noblest  action.  It  was  a  spirit  of  intellectual  under- 
standing and  of  emotional  appreciation  of  the  issues 
of  the  war.  It  was  also  a  spirit  of  willingness  to 
make  the  ultimate  sacrifice  to  win  its  victory.  No 
determination  was  mightier  than  to  stay  in  the  serv- 
ice until  barbarism  was  put  down  and  civilization 
again  enthroned.  In  this  determination  was  found 
the  spirit  of  democracy  strong  and  regnant,  a  democ- 
racy not  American  only,  but  also  human.     In  this 


The  Spirit  of  the  Student  Soldier         113 

sense  of  equality  and  of  liberty  was  found  not  only  a 
tender  sympathy  with  the  suffering  and  sorrowing, 
but  also  a  sympathy  which  did  not  weaken  the  will 
for  hardest  service.  In  this  sympathy  lay  also  a 
peculiar  rapture,  an  exultation  in  the  opportunity 
to  serve ;  and  with  this  rapture  went  along  a  capacity 
for  transformation  of  the  lower  manhood  into  the 
higher,  a  transformation  characteristic  of  the  best 
natures.  The  enthusiasm  also,  although  not  always 
keeping  itself  at  white  heat,  seems  to  have  been  con- 
sistent with  a  prophetic  outlook  into  humanity's  fu- 
ture. The  college  man  was  in  the  ranks,  as  in  the 
class-room,  primarily  the  man  of  thought  and  of 
thoughtfulness.  Putting  on  the  uniform,  he  did  not 
divest  himself  of  his  intellectual  habit. 

In  this  spirit  of  exultation,  both  emotional  and 
intellectual,  the  student  soldier  lent  himself  to  the 
primary  element,  military  discipline.  He  gave  him- 
self to  this  process  with  more  ease  than  the  untrained 
man  of  his  adolescent  years.  For,  the  college  course 
itself  was  a  process  more  disciplinary  than  the  process 
of  the  home.  Discipline  represents  not  only  obedi- 
ence, but  also  the  sinking  of  one's  own  individuality 
into  a  mass  of  individualities.  Not  always  with  ease, 
but  with  less  of  rebellion  than  usually  exists,  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  camp  by 
day  and  by  night.     Not  only  to  obedience  as  a  first 


114      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

duty,  but  also  to  cleanliness,  to  honesty,  to  sobriety, 
to  self-respect  and  other  of  the  principal  elements  of 
discipline,  he  found  himself  in  not  unhappy  accord. 
Of  course,  the  soldier  students,  in  many  instances, 
became  officers.  As  officers,  they  bore  themselves 
as  gentlemen.  War  is  a  brutalizer.  The  processes 
preparatory  for  and  following  the  battle  are  bru- 
talizing. Officers  are  inclined  to  be  coarse  in  lan- 
guage, severe  in  their  manners,  abrupt  and  harsh  in 
general  relationships  to  the  private.  Such  methods 
and  manners  were,  on  the  whole,  foreign  to  the  stu- 
dent soldier.  He  had  a  sense  of  altruism  above  men 
unschooled.  This  sense,  of  course,  he  exercised  with- 
out the  peril  of  softness  or  of  favoritism.  He  could 
be  at  once  gracious  and  commanding,  kind  and  se- 
vere, sympathetic  and  disciplinary.  He  was  not  in- 
clined to  create  that  most  common  element  of  the 
army,  the  element  of  fear.  For  fear  as  an  inspiring 
force,  he  used  the  proper  substitutes  of  pride  in  one's 
regiment  or  one's  battalion,  idealism,  and  enthusiasm 
for  the  cause.  Comradeship,  too,  he  cultivated,  and, 
that  element  of  the  soldier  in  every  man,  hero-wor- 
ship, he  inspired,  not  so  much  for  himself,  of  course, 
as  for  the  highest  commanders. 


VIII 

THE    SCIENCES    AND    THE    SCIENTISTS 

The  war  was  a  war  waged  by  scientists  and 
through  the  sciences.  The  principles  of  the  sci- 
ences were  its  principles.  The  methods  of  the  sci- 
ences were  its  methods.  The  conditions  attending 
research  and  applications  of  the  results  of  research 
were  its  conditions.  The  two  chief  new  forms  of 
attack,  the  submarine  and  the  airplane,  had  their 
origin  in  the  science  of  physics,  and  the  use  of  these 
machines  was  determined  by  the  laws  of  physics. 
Every  gun  of  a  battery  was  loaded  with  compounds 
made  according  to  the  laws  of  chemistry,  and  it  was 
aimed  and  discharged  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  trigonometry.  The  making  of  every  trench  and 
the  explosion  of  every  mine  was  settled  by  the  laws 
of  geology  and  of  other  sciences.  The  manufacture 
of  every  gas  followed  the  principles  of  chemical  ac- 
tion and  reaction,  and  the  methods  of  protection 
against  the  perils  of  gas  were  determined  by  chem- 
ical and  physical  investigations.  Even  the  healing 
of  the  wounds  on  the  arm,  back,  and  chest  was  meas- 
ured, and  a  prognosis  made,  to  a  certain  degree  by 

115 


116      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

the  laws  of  mathematics.  Such  a  fundamental  use 
of  scientific  principles  belonged  quite  as  much  to 
Germany  as  to  the  United  States  and  the  Allies.  In 
fact,  in  certain  relations,  as  in  the  use  of  gas,  Ger- 
many anticipated  her  enemies.  She  mobilized  her 
professors  of  chemistry  and  of  physics  in  her  mili- 
tary service  much  earlier  than  did  the  Allies,  as 
she  mobilized  her  troops  ahead  of  her  foes.  But  the 
scientists  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  United 
States  were,  when  the  summons  came,  no  less  prompt, 
no  less  efficient,  and  no  less  enthusiastic,  than  the 
professors  of  Berlin  and  Leipsic.  For  the  very 
first  time,  the  chemists,  the  physicists,  the  mathema- 
ticians, the  geologists  were  given  an  opportunity  of 
devoting  all  their  technical  skill  and  scientific  re- 
sources to  the  service  of  their  nation  and  humanity. 
They  sprang  as  one  strong  man  to  meet  the  demand 
and  to  embrace  the  opportunity. 

The  scientists  who  thus  threw  their  personalities, 
their  services  and  their  laboratories  into  the  war, 
were  usually  teachers  in  American  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. Members  of  the  research  staff  in  industrial 
plants  were  no  less  eager  in  their  offers,  no  less  pa- 
triotic in  their  self-sacrificing  contributions,  and  their 
number  was  large.  But  directly  as  well  as  indi- 
rectly the  college  teachers  formed  the  great  bulk  of 
the  scientific  army,  who  in  permanent  laboratories  or 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  117 

extemporized   plants   worked  for  their  government. 

In  the  work  of  the  scientists  were  found  two  funda- 
mental and  comprehensive  elements :  —  first,  the  ele- 
ment of  the  formation  of  groups  of  scholars  for  re- 
search, and,  second,  the  cooperation  of  these  groups. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  the  research  groups 
was  that  which  was  composed  of  scholars  like  Merritt 
of  Cornell,  Mason  of  Wisconsin,  Wilson  of  Rice  In- 
stitute, Pierce  and  Bridgman  of  Harvard,  Bumstead, 
Nichols  and  Zeleny  of  Yale,  and  Michelson  of  Chi- 
cago.^ These  outstanding  professors  were  asked  to 
find  devices  for  avoiding  many  dangers,  of  which 
the  submarine  peril  was  the  most  serious.  This 
service, —  the  cost  of  which  amounted  to  more  than 
one  million  dollars  —  had  so  proved  its  value  that 
after  a  few  months  it  was  taken  over  by  the  IsTavy 
Department. 

This  group  and  similar  groups  associated  them- 
selves with  other  bodies  engaged  also  in  scientific 
exploration  and  discovery.  The  Science  and  Re- 
search Division  and  the  Signal  Corps,  the  Bureau  of 
Aircraft  Production,  the  Meteorological  Section  of 
the  Science  and  Research  Division,  are  names  which, 
important  in  themselves,  represent  the  cooperation 
of  highly  trained  specialists,  formed  largely  of  col- 

1  The  New  Opportunity  in  Science,  Professor  R.  A.  Millikan, 
published  in  Science,  No.  1291,  page  288. 


118      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

lege  men,  who  worked  together  unto  great  results. 

Such  groups  and  such  cooperation  were  not,  by  any 
manner  of  means,  confined  to  the  United  States. 
The  French,  English,  and  Italian  scientists  were  in 
constant  cooperation,  both  in  person,  by  post  and  by 
cable,  over  devices  which  proved  to  be  of  the  highest 
worth. 

Of  all  the  sciences,  however,  chemistry  was  in 
this  war  the  first  well  equipped  scientific  force  in 
the  field.  It  was  an  epoch-making  day  in  the  history 
of  the  war  and  in  the  history  of  applied  chemistry, 
when  the  Chemical  Service  Section  was  formed  as 
a  unit  of  the  National  Army.  The  foundation  was 
laid  in  Washington,  soon  after  the  formal  entrance 
of  the  United  States,  at  a  conference  of  members  of 
the  General  Staff,  Medical  Corps  and  War  College, 
with  l^avy  and  civilian  chemists.  Its  chief  was 
Lieutenant  Colonel  W.  H.  Walker  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology.  It  chose  for  its  colors, 
the  colors  of  the  American  Chemical  Society, —  co- 
balt blue  and  gold,  and  it  adopted  for  its  insignia  the 
traditional  alembic  of  alchemy  joined  with  the  ben- 
zene ring. 

Thus  organized  the  chemists  served  in  many  rela- 
tions. They  became  members  of  the  General  Staff 
and  were  in  charge  of  all  forms  of  the  gas  warfare, 
which  included  research,  manufacturing  and  testing. 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  119 

They  were  made  members  of  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment. In  this  relationship  they  were  concerned  with 
the  solving  of  problems  touching  explosives  from  the 
moment  of  the  beginning  of  making  to  the  moment  of 
testing  and  of  discharge.  This  service  was  rendered 
at  many  points  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Cooperation  was  had  with  laboratories  of 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  of  the 
University  of  Michigan  and  of  other  institutions. 
The  chemists  also  had  a  share  in  the  work  of  the 
office  of  the  surgeon  general.  Questions  of  food,  of 
nutrition  and  of  sanitation  were  committed  to  them. 
At  the  Harriman  Laboratory,  the  spoiling  of  meat  was 
a  special  problem  considered.  At  the  University  of 
Kochester,  the  effect  of  temperature  on  desiccated 
vegetables  was  made  a  particular  question. 

These  services  were  rendered  to  the  Army  on  the 
land.  The  service  rendered  through  chemists  to 
the  Navy  were  also  as  significant,  even  if  the  num- 
ber engaged  was  smaller.  In  the  Ordnance  Bureau 
of  the  Navy  about  one  hundred  chemists  were  en- 
rolled. In  the  War  Trade  Board,  the  Shipping 
Board,  the  Food  Administration  Board,  the  Tariff 
Commission,  were  also  found  chemists  giving  the 
unique  sei-vice  which  each  department  demanded. 

In  hundreds  of  chemical  laboratories  on  the  cam- 
pus of  as  many  colleges,  professors  were  enrolled  un- 


120      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

der  government  direction,  pursuing  researches  which 
might  add  to  the  power  of  the  government  as  a  fight- 
ing machine.  These  researches  covered  in  an  inci- 
dental way  many  of  the  problems  which  were  com- 
prehensively examined  in  the  formal  laboratories  of 
the  government.  While  professors  were  pursuing 
their  work  in  a  more  or  less  regular  way  as  members 
of  the  teaching  staff,  they  were  also  practically  en- 
rolled as  soldiers  of  the  National  Army. 

It  is  ever  to  be  remembered  that  the  thousands  of 
men  engaged  formally  and  informally  in  the  chem- 
ical branch  of  the  war,  were  originally  trained  in  the 
colleges  and  that  many  of  them  were  permanent 
members  of  faculties.  They  represented  no  small 
share  of  the  contribution  made  to  the  war  by  the 
higher  education. 

A  similar  interpretation  belongs  to  the  yet  broader 
field  of  physics.  In  this  field  physicists,  teachers  in 
American  colleges,  bore  an  equally  important  part. 
In  the  multitude  of  instances  one  selects  representa- 
tive examples.  One  conspicuous  example  is  found 
in  the  airplane.  An  American  scholar  and  teacher 
has  personally  said : 

"  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  airplane  was  a  toy  op- 
erated by  an  engine  which  was  none  too  reliable  and  which 
could  develop  only  80  horse-power;  to-day  we  have  an  air- 
plane which  is  a  piece  of  engineering  driven  by  one  or 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  121 

more  engines  each  capable  of  developing  400  horse-power; 
and  this  modern  wonder  is  capable  of  carrying  50  passen- 
gers while  another  now  building  will  carry  100.  During 
the  war  the  airplanes  flew  from  London  to  Constantinople 
and  back,  on  bombing  raids,  malting  non-stop  flights  of 
over  1,000  miles ;  during  the  year  1918,  16,000  Liberty  en- 
gines were  produced :  a  special  cotton  fabric  and  a  thin 
sheet  steel  were  developed  to  take  the  place  of  the  linen 
formerly  used  on  the  wings;  speeds  up  to  140  miles  per 
hour  have  been  recorded  and  the  unheard  of  height  of 
29,000  feet  reached  which  latter  achievement,  by  the  way, 
opens  up  new  possibilities  in  the  study  of  meteorology. 
The  monthly  fatality  average  has  been  one  fatality  for 
each  3,200  hours  flown. 

"  Much  progress  has  been  made  with  the  dirigible  type  of 
airship  thanks  to  the  discovery  of  a  cheap  non-inflammable 
gas  as  a  substitiite  for  the  dangerous  hydrogen.  This  gas, 
helium,  first  discovered  on  the  sun,  was  produced  before 
the  war  at  a  cost  of  $1,500-$1,600  per  cubic  foot ;  it  is  now 
found  in  such  large  quantities  in  the  natural  gas  of  some 
of  the  southwestern  states  that  the  cost  of  production  per 
cubic  foot  is  about  $100;  if  this  supply  continues  to  hold 
out  there  is  a  great  future  for  the  airship. 

"  It  goes  without  saying  that  the  theory  of  aviation  has 
been  placed  upon  a  much  better  foundation  because  of  the 
thousands  of  experiments  it  has  been  possible  to  make; 
efforts  at  stabilizing  are  meeting  with  success  and  consid- 
erable improvement  in  the  various  instruments  used  has 
been  made." 

Another  American  physicist,  Professor  Joseph  S, 
Ames  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  writing;  before 
the  signing  of  the  armistice,  of  two  great  additions 
to  the  weapons  of  attack  said : 


122      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

"  There  are  two  main  problems  in  connection  with  the 
submarine,  first,  to  locate  it,  second  to  destroy  it.  Meth- 
ods of  destruction  are  at  hand  in  the  shape  of  depth 
bombs ;  but  methods  of  detection  so  far  have  not  been  emi- 
nently successful.  From  an  airplane  one  can  see  through 
the  water  only  to  a  limited  depth,  never  more  than  twenty 
feet,  and  so  the  main  reason  why  the  sea-planes  have  been 
so  successful  in  destroying  submarines  is  not  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  observer  in  the  airplane  discovers  his  prey, 
but  is  that  his  machine  has  such  great  speed,  three  times 
that  of  a  destroyer,  that  when  news  is  flashed  that  a  vessel 
is  being  attacked  by  a  submarine  it  can  often  reach  the 
spot  in  time  to  drop  its  bomb  effectively.  The  detection 
of  the  presence  of  a  submarine  is  a  definite  physical  prob- 
lem; and  it  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  at  least  one- 
fourth  of  the  physicists  of  note  in  England,  France  and 
this  country  have  been  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  solve 
it.  What  lines  of  attack  upon  it  are  open?  Not  many. 
The  submarine  in  motion  emits  certain  somids;  can  they 
be  heard  ?  It  is  a  solid  body ;  can  one  obtain  an  echo  from 
it?  It  is  made  of  iron;  can  this  fact  help  through  some 
magnetic  action?  These  are  the  obvious  lines  of  ap- 
proach, but  one  should  not  hastily  conclude  that  there 
are  not  others.  Without  stating,  and  I  may  not,  how  far 
successful  these  efforts  of  the  physicists  have  been,  I  may 
note  that  the  method  which  is  now  being  tested  by  our 
Navy  is  one  elaborated  by  a  distinguished  professor  of 
mathematical  physics."  ^ 

There  were,  moreover,  certain  special  adaptations 

or  applications  of  physics  which  proved  to  be  of  great 

1  Annual  address  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  1918.     Science,  25th  Oct.,  1918. 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  123 

worth.  The  whole  art  of  surveying  was  changed  by 
the  war.  An  operator  with  a  camera  in  an  airplane 
can,  it  was  proved,  in  less  than  a  minute  make  a 
complete  map  of  a  section  of  country,  even  at  as  great 
a  height  as  four  miles.  In  meteorology,  it  was 
proved  that  balloons  can  be  made  to  have  a  speed  of 
even  a  hundred  miles  an  hour  and  fly  a  distance  of 
more  than  a  thousand  miles.  The  Research  Division 
of  the  Meteorologists  proved  that  the  upper  regions 
of  the  air  can  be  measured  and  mapped  out, —  facts 
that  are  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  aviator. 

Physicists,  too,  accomplished  great  results  in  the 
art  of  signalling.  In  this  complex  and  unique  art 
special  use  was  made  of  the  infra-red  and  the  ultra- 
violet rays,  which  are  invisible.  Great  improve- 
ments were  also  made  in  the  wireless  telegraph  and 
the  wireless  telephone.  The  sound  waves  from  the 
guns  of  the  enemy  were  used  to  locate  their  position, 
within  one  per  cent,  of  the  true  place.  Physicists 
were  also  concerned  with  the  development  of  armor 
plate,  with  the  art  of  camouflage,  with  improvements 
in  photography,  and  with  the  discovery  and  applica- 
tion of  the  German  methods  for  the  production  of 
dye  stuffs,  and  in  the  making  of  optical  glass. 

The  physicists  who  thus  contributed  to  the  winning 
of  the  war  were  usually  members  of  the  teaching 


124      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

staffs  of  American  colleges,  and,  like  the  chemists, 
they  represented  the  personal  contribution  which  the 
cause  of  higher  learning  offered. 

Less  superficially  evident,  but  no  less  fundamen- 
tally useful,  than  the  services  of  the  mathematician, 
of  the  chemist  and  of  the  physicist  was  the  service 
of  the  geologist  and  the  geographer.  Their  work 
comprised  several  groups  of  activities.  Such  ac- 
tivities were  of  course  given  by  British  and  French 
scholars  as  well  as  by  American.  They  were  ad- 
visers of  the  Military  Staff  of  the  British  armies  in 
Palestine,  at  Gallipoli  and  in  Greece.  The  German 
army  early  in  the  war  installed  geologists  in  the  army 
organization.  Geologists  served  as  consultants  on 
the  topographic  conditions  touching  strategy.  They 
were  made  explorers  for  water.  To  find  this  supply 
became  as  hard  and  as  important  a  problem  in  densely 
peopled  Flanders  as  it  was  in  Palestine  and  Syria. 
They  offered  counsel  regarding  proper  conditions  for 
excavations  and  mining  operations,  kept  close  watch 
of  underground  waters  (always  liable  to  rise  or 
fall),  a  constant  problem,  not  only  in  wet  weather 
but  also  in  drouth.  It  has  been  said  that  it  was  the 
skill  of  the  geologists  who  planned  the  location  of 
fifty  or  more  mines  placed  in  the  Messines  Pidge, 
which  resulted  in  their  successful  explosion.  They 
were  consultants  for  supplies  of  material  for  roads. 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  125 

rogarding  foundations  for  positions  for  the  artillery 
and  regarding  proper  conditions  of  camp  sanitation. 

The  United  States  Geological  Survey  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  War  Industries  Board,  Bureau  of 
Mines,  Shipping  Board,  Bureau  of  Standards  and 
other  organizations  gave  invaluable  aid  in  promot- 
ing research  and  advancing  various  activities,  both 
large  and  of  detail.  The  finding  of  manganese  ore, 
the  importation  of  which  had  ceased,  and  of  sulphuric 
supplies,  high  grade  clay  for  special  purposes,  chro- 
mite,  potassium,  pyrite  for  making  sulphuric  acid, 
represented  this  important  and  diverse  service. 

Geologists  and  geographers  were  also  employed  in 
many  training  camps  in  making  and  reading  maps, 
and  in  teaching  students  in  these  arts.  In  the  liter- 
ary field  reports  on  the  topography  and  geology  of 
each  cantonment  were  made,  not  only  for  immediate 
information,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  training 
officers  to  secure  similar  knowledge  for  the  future 
location  of  camps.  The  literary  service  of  the  geogra- 
phers, physiographers  and  cartographers  was  of 
such  great  value  that  at  least  a  quartet  of  them  were 
made  members  of  the  Paris  Peace  Council.-^ 

As  in  the  case  of  other  scientists,  the  credit  for 

1  Professor  J.  E.  Hyde,  of  Western  Reserve  University,  has 
contributed  many  facts  regarding  the  service  of  geologists  and 
geographers. 


126      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

the  contribution  offered  by  geologists  was  ultimately 
due  to  the  colleges.  The  colleges  trained  these  men 
for  their  great  ser\nce  and  in  the  colleges  not  a  few 
of  them  were  pemianent  teachers. 

Of  all  the  offerings  made  by  the  American  uni- 
versities to  the  great  cause,  the  contributions  of  the 
medical  schools  were,  if  not  more  useful,  at  least  more 
impressive. 

The  service,  of  course,  had  its  foundation  in  the 
professional  training  given  for  decades  previous  to 
1917,  as  well  as  in  the  training  of  the  years  cov- 
ering the  war  itself.  The  service  rendered  was  sup- 
ported by  the  great  improvement  of  the  medical 
schools  in  the  decade  preceding  the  outbreak  of  the 
war.  This  improvement  was  greater  than  had  oc- 
curred in  the  preceding  half  century.  Regarding  the 
medical  service  of  the  war  and  in  the  education  lying 
behind  this  service,  a  competent  interpreter  has 
written :  — 

"  The  most  important  factor  in  the  efficiency  of  a 
medical  school  is  the  maintenance  of  an  efficient  per- 
sonnel in  the  teaching  staff.  Hence,  in  addition  to 
oversight  of  distribution  of  medical  practitioners  to 
care  for  the  health  of  the  civilian  population,  and  the 
securing  of  medical  officers  to  care  for  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  the  army,  the  surgeon  general  must 
maintain  effective  teaching  staffs  in  all  those  medical 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  127 

schools  which  were  serving  as  training  schools  for 
the  future  medical  officers. 

"  However  it  was  necessary  to  secure  the  service  in 
the  army  of  every  competent  and  physically  fit  med- 
ical man  who  could  be  spared  from  the  care  of  the 
civilian  population  and  from  the  training  of  students. 
The  army  had  need  of  highly  trained  experts  in  many 
fields  of  medicine,  especially  in  hospital  and  camp 
laboratories  and  in  certain  of  the  medical  and  surgi- 
cal specialties.  It  was  well  known  before  the  war, 
and  was  more  apparent  after  the  war  began,  that 
on  the  whole  the  best  men  in  their  various  lines  were 
on  the  teaching  staffs  of  some  medical  school.  This 
was  true  because  the  medical  school  in  each  com- 
munity seeks  the  best  men  of  that  community  and 
also  because  medical  men  who  are  teaching  are  stimu- 
lated to  greater  effort  to  become  more  expert,  both  by 
study  and  by  investigation,  than  are  the  men  in 
practice  who  are  deprived  of  the  stimulus  of  being 
associated  with  students  and  a  teaching  institution. 

"  It  soon  became  apparent  that  if  the  army  were 
permitted  to  take  all  the  experts  it  desired,  then  the 
schools  would  be  stripped  of  a  large  part  of  their 
best  teachers,  and  as  a  result  the  members  of  the 
Medical  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps  who  were  left  in  the 
schools  for  the  sole  purpose  of  being  adequately 
trained  for  future  service  in  the  army  would  get  an 


128      Colleges  aiid  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

inefficient  training  because  of  the  lack  of  experi- 
enced good  teachers. 

"  Hence  the  War  Department  diminished  its  early 
efforts  to  bring  into  the  army  men  who  were  teach- 
ers in  medical  schools.  This  did  not  solve  the  prob- 
lem, for  it  was  soon  apparent  that  the  best  teachers 
were  extremely  patriotic  and  desired  to  serve  their 
country  and  further,  that  they  believed  they  should 
go  into  the  army  rather  than  remain  as  teachers  in 
the  medical  schools.  The  psychology  of  the  situa- 
tion was  evident,  especially  when  emphasized  by  the 
public  attitude  toward  able-bodied  men  who  were  not 
in  uniform.  Some  plan  was  needed  whereby  the 
teaching  staffs  of  the  medical  schools  should  not  be 
impaired  to  such  extent  that  there  would  be  a  result- 
ing deterioration  in  the  training  of  the  students."  -^ 

As  a  result  the  government  allowed  each  medical 
school  to  retain  the  teachers  who  were  essential  to 
the  carrying  on  of  the  school.  Such  men  were  re- 
garded as  serving  their  nation  quite  as  effectively  as 
if  they  had  gone  to  a  hospital  in  France.  The  con- 
tribution of  the  medical  schools,  through  their  gradu- 
ates, teachers,  and  students,  made  to  the  winning  of 
the  war,  represented  no  less  than  30,000,  physicians 
and   surgeons.     Of  this   great  number,    about  one- 

1  Personal  letter  from  Professor  Frederick  C.  Waite,  of 
Western  Reserve  University  Medical  School. 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  129 

half  graduated  within  the  decade  preceding  their  en- 
trance, about  10,000  between  the  years  1899-1908, 
and  5,000  before  the  year  1899.  Essentially  they 
were  all  young  men.  The  contribution  which  the 
medical  schools  thus  made  was  of  course  of  the  ut- 
most worth.  In  numbers  the  thirty  thousand  enroll- 
ments represented  slightly  more  than  one-fifth  of  all 
the  practicing  physicians.^ 

In  the  development  of  the  American  medical  serv- 
ice no  less  than  six  university  base  hospital  units 
were  established  in  France.  In  fact,  as  early  as 
December  28th,  1914,  a  body  of  surgeons,  nurses, 
and  anesthetists  from  Western  Eeserve  University 
and  its  allied  Lakeside  Hospital  sailed  for  France  to 
serve  with  the  Allied  forces,  and,  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war  in  1917,  it  was  a  similar  body  which 
was  ordered  into  similar  service.  Later,  King 
George,  at  Buckingham  Palace,  addressing  this  unit, 
said,  "  We  greet  you  as  the  first  detachment  of  the 
American  Army  which  has  landed  on  our  shores  since 
your  great  Republic  resolved  to  join  in  the  world- 
struggle  for  the  ideals  of  civilization.  We  deeply 
appreciate  this  prompt  and  generous  response  to  our 
needs.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  humanity  and 
chivalry  which  has  ever  been  evinced  by  the  Ameri- 

1  For  the  U.  S.,  the  whole  was  147,812,  and  for  the  Depen- 
dencies, 1,319, 


130      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

can  nation  that  the  first  assistance  rendered  to  the 
Allies  is  in  connection  with  the  profession  of  heal- 
ing and  the  work  of  mercy." 

The  ofiicers  of  these  various  university  units  gave 
most  efficient  service  at  the  front,  as  well  as  behind 
the  lines.  A  single  one  of  these  university  hospital 
units  cared  for  more  than  sixty-eight  thousand  sick 
and  wounded  men.  ISTot  only  was  such  personal, 
direct  care  given,  but  also  scientific  research  groups 
were  formed  among  the  surgeons  and  physicians  and 
their  associates.  The  causes  and  the  prevention  of 
the  diverse  diseases  and  sicknesses  to  which  the  sol- 
diers were  subjected  received  careful  attention. 
Every  wounded  man  became  a  specific  problem.  The 
comparative  value  of  different  methods  of  treatment 
was  the  object  of  constant  inquiry.  The  study  of 
shock  and  exhaustion  occupied  no  small  share  of  the 
attention  of  the  research  staff.  The  shielding  of  the 
ear  against  the  effect  of  explosives,  the  defensive  use 
of  gasses,  the  sterilization  of  water  in  all  the  camps, 
the  saving  of  soldiers  from  the  constant  peril  of 
typhoid  fever  —  a  peril  which  was  specially  virulent 
for  the  first  men  of  the  war  —  are  examples  of  the 
diverse  service  given  by  medical  professors. 

In  every  branch  of  the  service,  the  element  of  in- 
dustrial fatigue  played  an  important  part.  The 
scarcity  of  labor  of  every  sort  made  it  of  extreme  im- 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  131 

portance  that  each  laborer  be  permanently  kept  at  his 
highest  efSeiency.  The  physiologist  was  therefore 
constantly  called  upon  to  quicken  those  who  were  un- 
derworking and  to  restrain  those  who  were  guilty  of 
overwork. 

"  It  would  appear,"  says  Doctor  George  W.  Crile, 
to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  certain  of  these  inter- 
pretations, "  that  the  service  of  the  medical  depart- 
ments of  our  universities  during  the  great  war  would 
justify  a  permanent  organization  whereby  the  mem- 
bers of  our  university  medical  schools  would  become 
a  permanent  part  of  our  national  defense.  Our 
eighty  university  schools  thus  organized  would  cover 
the  hospital  needs  of  an  army  of  approximately 
3,200,000.  By  means  of  such  an  organization  it 
would  be  possible  for  the  Surgeon  General  to  es- 
tablish his  military  point  of  view  in  the  training  of 
all  worthy  medical  men.  By  such  a  collective  effort 
an  American  medical  force  could  be  established 
ready  for  practical  application  in  time  of  national 
need." 

And  yet  the  experiences  of  the  medical  schools  in 
the  war  time  gave  ground  for  the  interpretation  that 
there  are  serious  deficiencies  in  these  schools,  and 
consequently  in  their  graduates.  The  war  proved 
that  the  schools  had  not  educated  their  students  in 
what  is  known  as  physical  diagnosis,  and  also  the 


132      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

\\i\y  proved  that  there  is  a  great  ignorance  of  hygiene 
and  of  the  fundamental  conditions  of  public  health. 
It  was  also  shown  that  no  small  share  of  the  physi- 
cians, who  claimed  to  be  specialists,  had  not  received 
adequate  training.  But,  despite  these  facts,  the  con- 
tribution made  was  a  necessary  part  of  the  great  ef- 
fort for  winning  the  war. 

The  service  of  the  medical  schools  was  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  traditional  conditions  of  caring  for 
the  sick  and  the  wounded  and  of  the  promotion  of 
good  hygienic  forces  in  the  battle  area.  The  medical 
schools,  directly  or  indirectly,  provided  men  and 
equipment  for  important  commissions  to  devastated 
lands.  These  commissions  were  concerned  with 
Servia,  Russia,  with  the  Balkan  Provinces,  including 
Eoumania,  and  with  the  countries  of  the  near  East. 
They  bore  offerings  beneficent,  as  well  as  unique,  of- 
ferings which  in  their  origin  were  made  by  the 
schools  of  medicine  and  their  affiliated  hospitals. 
The  needs  which  these  commissions  filled  were  of 
inexpressible  value. 

A  member  of  the  delegation,  which  went  to  Eou- 
mania in  the  year  of  1917,  Doctor  Roger  G.  Perkins 
of  Western  Reserve  University,  has  indicated  the 
seriousness  of  the  condition  in  Roumania.     He  says : 

"  Everything  tangible  in  the  way  of  supplies  had 
been  commandeered  for  military  purposes,  all  physi- 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  133 

cians  up  to  the  age  of  sixty-five  had  been  mobilized, 
and  most  of  the  assistants  in  the  civil  hospitals  had 
been  taken  into  war  service.  As  a  result  of  this 
one-sided  arrangement,  fairly  active  measures  were 
being  taken  among  the  troops  in  the  way  of  delousing, 
isolation  of  patients,  and  so  forth,  so  that  the  actual 
incidence  in  the  war  zone  was  low.  Among  the  civil 
population,  however,  there  was  practically  nothing 
being  done  except  in  the  larger  centers,  and  these 
were  so  frightfully  overcrowded  that  even  the  best 
of  intentions  were  unable  to  accomplish  much.  The 
city  of  Jassy,  for  instance,  with  a  normal  population 
of  sixty  thousand,  was  housing  nearly  three  hundred 
thousand,  and  other  towns  were  crowded  in  similar 
proportion.  There  were  insufiicient  food  and  insuf- 
ficient clothing  and  insufiicient  hospital  supplies  and 
drugs,  and  when  anything  was  at  hand,  the  best  of  it 
went  to  the  military.  In  the  rural  districts  which 
were  most  removed  from  the  fighting  lines,  things 
were  comparatively  normal,  though  the  insufiiciency 
of  food  and  clothing  was  evident.  INTearer  the  fight- 
ing lines,  however,  on  account  partly  of  the  great 
difiiculties  of  transportation,  the  conditions  were  very 
serious.  In  addition  to  the  armies  of  defense,  there 
was  a  large  number  of  refugees  from  the  occupied 
districts  and  also  a  number  of  persons  evacuated 
from  homes  on  the  Allied  side  which  were  under 


134      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

German  fire.  For  the  care  of  these  people,  there  was 
practically  no  provision  whatever,  and,  although  the 
season  was  still  early  and  the  weather  warm  enough 
to  prevent  the  crowding  together,  which  occurs  al- 
ways in  the  winter  periods,  cases  of  typhus  were  be- 
ing noted  sporadically  all  over  the  country.  It  was 
clear  that,  with  the  onset  of  colder  weather  and  with- 
out active  measures,  there  was  a  chance  for  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  previous  epidemic  in  which  100,000  were 
said  to  have  died." 

To  meet  such  conditions,  the  commission  adopted 
the  following  methods : 

"  First,  to  make  all  military  baths,  hospitals,  and 
disinfectors  available  for  civil  as  well  as  military 
population;  second,  to  detach  from  military  service 
a  sufficient  number  of  physicians  with  previous  ex- 
perience in  civil  work  to  have  a  special  care  of  the 
civil  population  of  the  country;  third,  that  as  far  as 
the  epidemic  went,  a  man  should  be  appointed  with 
proper  experience  who  should  be  in  general  control  of 
the  entire  work  and  have  accessibility  to  all  supplies 
whether  civil  or  military." 

The  methods  adopted  were  proved,  after  more 
than  a  year  of  their  application,  to  have  been  ef- 
fective. For,  despite  difficulties  and  hindrances  and 
constant  appeals,  it  was  made  evident  that  thousands 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  135 

were  saved  from  typhus  infections  and  that  the  na- 
tion was  spared  a  heavy  toll  of  death. 

Lamentable  as  was  the  condition  of  Roumania,  the 
condition  of  Servia  was  still  more  pitiable.  To 
Servia,  near  the  close  of  the  war,  a  commission  was 
sent,  composed  of  professors  in  medical  schools  who, 
through  one  of  their  number,  made  the  following 
report : 

"  There  never  had  been  enough  doctors  in  the 
country,  a  large  number  of  these  had  been  killed  dur- 
ing the  war,  and  in  1919  there  were  so  few  that 
many  parts  of  the  country  had  one  physician  to 
75,000  or  more  persons.  With  the  difficulties  of 
transportation  made  much  worse  by  the  destruction 
of  roads  and  bridges  during  the  war,  this  meant  that 
the  greater  part  of  Servia  was  totally  without  med- 
ical service  of  any  sort. 

"  It  was  accordingly  arranged  to  establish  small 
groups  of  doctors  and  nurses,  as  far  as  possible  in 
association  with  relief  stations,  and  to  have  those 
units  care  for  emergency  medical  work  with  the  dis- 
tinct understanding  that  they  should  give,  as  far  as 
possible,  primary  education  in  public  health  matters. 
No  elaborate  program  was  possible  on  account  of 
the  lack  of  education  and  the  impossibility  of  any 
intensive  propaganda.     On  this  basis,  some  twenty- 


136       Colleges  and   Universities  in  the  Great  War 

live  stations  were  established  throughout  Servia 
inauued  with  American  personnel.  They  were 
everywhere  most  heartily  welcomed,  and  every  fa- 
cility which  the  war-ridden  country  could  furnish 
them  was  put  at  their  disposal.  To  have  left  the 
country  and  abandoned  the  work  at  the  end  of  June, 
1919,  as  was  originally  planned,  would  have  been  a 
serious  error  for  the  Red  Cross  and  a  misfortune 
for  the  people.  After  consulting  with  the  Servian 
authorities  and  with  the  heads  of  the  Balkan  Com- 
mission and  the  Commission  for  Europe,  the  Red 
Cross  decided  to  retain  about  half  of  these  stations 
for  a  period  of  at  least  a  year,  under  American  per- 
sonnel. This  action  w^as  necessary  because  the  Serv- 
ians actually  lacked  physicians  and  obviously  could 
not  obtain  more  without  leaving  several  years  for 
their  instruction,  unless  they  had  assistance  from  out- 
side. In  Roumania  and  Greece,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  actual  possible  supply  of  medical  men  was  ade- 
quate if  properly  distributed.  The  pathetic  appre- 
ciation of  our  efforts  in  the  medical  line  and  the 
friendly  feeling  towards  America  in  the  villages  to 
which  our  work  was  accessible,  constituted  probably 
the  greatest  potential  influence  for  good  of  any  of 
the  relations  between  the  Red  Cross  and  the  Balkan 
people." 

In  the  service  of  science  in  prosecuting  and  win- 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  137 

ning  the  war,  the  function  of  agriculture  was  con- 
stant and  vital.  In  this  field  the  work  done  through 
the  so-called  "  Land  Grant  Colleges  "  established  by 
the  Morrill  Act  of  1862  was  of  tremendous  signifi- 
cance. This  pregnant  Act  together  with  subsequent 
legislation  of  the  National  Congress  had  caused  a 
vast  development  in  agriculture  throughout  the  West. 
Of  the  conditions  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  David 
Y.  Houston,  wrote: 

"  The  Land-grant  Colleges  and  experiment  stations  are 
without  parallel.  They  are  67  in  number,  have  a  total 
valuation  of  endowment,  plant,  and  equipment  of  $195,- 
000,000 ;  and  income  of  more  than  $45,000,000,  with  5,900 
teachers;  a  resident  student  body  of  over  75,000,  and  a 
vast  number  receiving  extension  instruction.  Their  great 
ally,  the  Department  of  Agricidture,  is  unquestionably  the 
greatest  practical  and  scientific  agricultural  organization 
in  the  world.  It  bas  a  staff  of  more  than  20,000  people, 
many  of  them  highly  trained  experts,  and  a  budget  of 
approximately  $65,000,000."  i 

And  further  Dr.  Houston  said :  — 

"  The  department  and  its  great  allies,  the  Land-gTant 
Colleges,  immediately  proceeded  to  redirect  their  activities 
and  to  put  forth  all  their  energies  in  the  most  promising 
directions.  In  a  conference  of  the  agricultural  leaders  of 
the  nation  in  St.  Louis,  called  just  before  the  United 
States  entered  the  war,  a  program  for  further  organiza- 
tion, legislation  and  action  with  reference  to  production, 

1  Science,  September   13,   1918,  page  260. 


138      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Oreat  War 

conservation  and  marketing  was  drawn  up,  the  principle 
features  of  which  have  been  enacted  into  law  without  sub- 
stantial change  or  have  been  put  into  effect.  This  prompt 
and  effective  handling  of  the  situation  was  made  possible 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  American  people,  genera- 
tions before,  had  wisely  laid  the  foundations  of  many  agri- 
cultural institutions  and  had  with  increasing  liberality 
supported  their  agricultural  agencies."  ^ 

The  scientific  contributions  therefore,'  made  by 
Great  Britain,  France  and  the  United  States  for  the 
winning  of  the  war  were  as  broad,  diverse,  and  fun- 
damental as  the  cause  of  science  itself.  The  pro- 
fessors in  academic  faculties  became  officers  of  the 
N^ational  Army.  The  equipment  in  chemistry,  geol- 
ogy, physics  and  other  sciences  were,  so  far  as  neces- 
sary, transferred  to  the  government.  The  coopera- 
tion of  teachers  of  these  sciences  was  marked.  Their 
co-working  in  making  airplanes  and  in  methods  of 
signalling  was  peculiarly  significant.  New  labora- 
tories were  built  and  manned  by  college  teachers. 
Researches  in  manifold  fields  were  instituted.  Sci- 
ence became,  in  a  word,  mobilized  in  the  service  of 
democracy  and  of  humanity.  The  part  that  science 
played  in  former  wars  had  been  slight.  The  place 
that  science  may  fill  in  future  wars  is  unkno^vn. 
It  is  probable  that  through  biology  and  bacteriology 
a  greater  function  will  be  performed,  but  the  place 

ilbid.,  page  261. 


The  Sciences  and  the  Scientists  139 

of  science  in  at  least  five  of  its  great  divisions  in  the 
great  war  is  secure.  Its  contributions  stand  forth 
fostered  and  nourished  by  the  college  as  of  unique 
significance  and  imperishable  value. 


IX 


THE    WOMEN  S    COLLEGES 


Florence  Nightingale  remains  as  the  type  of  the 
war-time  nurse.  Bnt  a  broader  and  more  important 
form  of  women's  service  this  war  brought  forth 
than  the  "  Lady  with  the  Lamp  "  could  ever  picture. 
The  American  college  for  women  represented  and 
embodied  this  service. 

The  number  of  colleges  open  to  women  of  the  three 
ordinary  types,  co-educational,  co-ordinate,  separate, 
is  about  five  hundred.  The  co-educational  and  the 
co-ordinate  colleges  made  first-rate  contributions,  but 
the  colleges  for  women  alone,  by  reason  of  their  more 
individual  organization,  gave  a  service  yet  more  dis- 
tinctive. Throughout  the  far-flung  crisis,  the  gradu- 
ates, the  officers  and  the  students  of  these  colleges 
rendered  several  types  of  service. 

Be  it  at  once  said  that  the  colleges  for  women,  like 
the  colleges  for  men,  directly  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  put  themselves  on  a  war  basis.  They  respected 
food  regulations,  they  obsei"ved  meatless  and  wheat- 
less  days,  they  established  economies  of  many  sorts. 

140 


The  ^Y omens  Colleges  l-il 

One  college  saved  coal  by  having  no  heat  during 
October  of  the  year  1918.  Students  abolished  their 
parties,  like  Junior  "  Proms.,"  Class  Days  and  Class 
Plays.  "  No  frills  and  frippery "  was  a  motto 
adopted  at  Vassar. 

The  colleges  themselves  formally  offered  courses 
of  instruction  designed  to  educate  and  to  train  women 
for  special  war-time  activities.  Some  provided 
courses  in  agriculture  and  horticulture.  The  at- 
tendance of  women  at  the  ordinary  schools  of  agri- 
culture increased.  Several  colleges  offered  courses 
in  occupational  therapy  designed  to  train  students 
to  become  teachers  of  wounded  soldiers  in  various 
handicrafts.  Applied  psychology,  chemistry,  wire- 
less telegraphy,  map-making  and  map-reading,  home 
economics,  drafting,  typewriting,  French  with  em- 
phasis on  such  conversation  as  might  be  necessary  in 
canteens,  the  mechanism  of  the  motor  car,  first  aid, 
surgical  dressings,  home  nursing,  war  cookery:  all 
of  these  and  many  more  courses  represented  the  war- 
time instruction.  Students  felt  themselves  impelled 
toward  such  training;  and  the  college  officers  with 
much  enthusiasm,  threw  themselves  into  the  giving 
of  such  instruction.  The  value  of  such  courses  was 
both  psychological  and  practical. 

The  colleges  also  gave  themselves  to  what  may  be 
called    the    military    avocations    of    academic    life. 


142     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Chief  among  them  were  foimd  the  activities  of  the 
Red  Cross.  Most  diverse  were  the  services  thus 
rendered  by  both  younger  and  older  graduates  and  by 
students.  They  all  gave  themselves  to  the  executive 
work  of  the  Red  Cross.  They  became  teachers  in 
the  Navy  Department  and  censors  in  the  post-office, 
publicity  workers  in  the  Women's  Council  of  Na- 
tional Defense,  and  psychological  examiners  of  can- 
didates in  the  aviation  service.  They  did  welfare 
work  in  factories.  They  served  at  home  and  abroad 
as  telephone  operators  and  superintendents.  Indi- 
vidual colleges  offered  individual  services. 

Reed  College,  Oregon,  formed  a  military  organiza- 
tion for  knitting,  which  was  divided  into  thirteen 
companies.  Vassar's  students  provided  more  than 
25,000  pieces  of  work  done  for  soldiers.  The 
"  Sopho-Militia,"  at  Randolph-Macon,  helped  to  fur- 
nish a  hostess  house  at  Camp  Lee.  The  agricultural 
unit  of  Vassar  and  of  other  colleges  helped  to  over- 
come the  shortage  of  farm  labor  in  the  spring  of 
1918.  The  Patriotic  League  of  one  college  sent  out 
six  thousand  pieces  of  mail  addressed  to  soldiers, 
rinaneial  campaigns,  like  Liberty  Bonds  and  friend- 
ship funds,  were  carried  forward;  and  in  one  col- 
lege, the  Western  Reserve  College  for  Women,  the 
amount  secured  in  one  Liberty  Loan  through  stu- 
dents was  more  than  one-half  million  dollars.     The 


The  Women's  Colleges  143 

faculty  and  students  of  Vassar  College  raised 
$182,000  for  war  service.  Many  nurses  of  hundreds 
of  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  in  the  col- 
leges were  mobilized  for  instant  and  constant  serv- 
ice. The  typical  college  came  to  have  fun  and  sport 
in  planning  work  for  the  comfort  of  the  men  at  the 
front  and  in  the  camps.  Such  were  some  of  the 
campus  and  near-campus  activities  of  the  students 
and  graduates.  In  a  still  wider  radius  were  found 
many  other  activities.  These  activities  came  to  their 
fullness  in  the  summer  of  the  year  1918.  No  one  of 
these  services  proved  to  be  more  commanding  than 
that  found  in  the  Vassar  Nurses'  Camp  in  the  so- 
called  vacation  months  of  that  year.  This  camp  was, 
in  fact,  a  "  Woman's  Plattsburg."  It  gave  an  in- 
troductory training  to  women  who  proposed  to  adopt 
nursing  as  a  profession.  About  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  colleges  were  represented  by  graduates  or  stu- 
dents, coming  from  many  states,  in  which  Ohio  and 
New  York  were  first.  Most  of  these  students  en- 
tered the  regular  training  schools  of  hospitals  with 
the  season  of  1918-1919. 

Wellesley  college,  at  the  request  of  the  "  Woman's 
Land  Army  of  America,"  established  an  experiment 
station  on  and  near  its  beautiful  grounds.  It  was 
rather  an  experiment  station  than  a  training  school. 
Its  numbers  were  limited  to  thirty,  who  came  them- 


144      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

selves  from  several  colleges  and  who  were  already 
teachers,  housekeepers,  farmers  and  holders  of  good 
business  places.  It  was  in  part  a  camp  for  farmers. 
Expert  instruction  was  also  given  in  hygiene,  sani- 
tation and  first  aid. 

In  this  diverse  work  Smith  College  in  cooperation 
with  the  Boston  Psychopathic  Hospital  conducted  a 
small  school  for  psychiatric  association  work,  having 
in  mind  the  special  purpose  of  giving  aid  to  shell- 
shocked  sufferers.  Bryn  Mawr  provided  special 
service  in  training  leaders  in  industrial  plants,  and 
]\[ount  Holyoke  in  educating  groups  of  workers  to 
aid  women  employed  in  factories  to  secure  good  hy- 
gienic and  moral  conditions. 

At  the  tip-end  of  Cape  Cod  at  Provincetown  the 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnse  established  a 
Home  Clubhouse  for  the  men  serving  on  patrol  boats 
and  at  the  radio  stations.  It  gave  an  opportunity 
for  recreation  in  a  home  atmosphere. 

But  the  services  of  graduates  of  the  colleges  for 
women  were  not  confined  to  the  home  shores.  The 
record  of  their  work,  though  narrow  in  scope  and 
confined  to  small  numbers,  is  most  impressive.  For 
the  first  time  in  history  college  women  had  a  definite 
share  in  the  activities  of  war  or  in  the  repair  of 
war's  damages.  For  it  is  ever  to  be  remembered  that 
the  college  for  women  is  a  distinctively  new  crea- 


The  Women's  Colleges  145 

tion.  The  first  outstanding  institutions  did  not  offer 
instruction  until  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  in  Amer- 
ica. 

A  division  for  oversea  service  was  first  made  by 
Smith  College.  Its  relief  workers  were  among  the 
first  of  American  Associations  to  carry  help  to  devas- 
tated l^orthern  and  Eastern  France.  Composed  of 
nurses  trained  and  untrained,  equipped  with  the 
proper  medical  staff,  it  bore  healing  to  the  sick  and 
the  wounded,  sight  to  the  blind,  feet  to  the  lame, 
bread  to  the  hungry,  a  sense  of  home  to  the  homeless, 
and  cheer  to  all.  To  the  unit  was  committed  no  less 
than  sixteen  villages  of  two  thousand  people,  to  whom 
its  members  were  to  become  friends.  Expelled  from 
their  habitat  in  the  spring  retreat  of  1918,  and  in 
peril  of  capture  by  the  enemy,  they  yet  persevered  in 
season  and  out  of  season,  in  every  place  open  to  their 
service.  Their  worth  in  the  work  of  reconstruction 
was  within  its  field  most  efficient. 

A  similar  Red  Cross  unit  was  commissioned  by 
Wellesley.  Among  the  conditions  for  memberehip 
were  besides  sound  character,  a  minimum  age  limit 
of  twenty-five  years,  a  certificate  of  enduring  health, 
physical  and  nervous,  ability  to  speak,  read  and 
write  easy  French,  a  training  in  medicine  or  nurs- 
ing or  social  service.  The  unit  contained  members 
of  diverse  facilities:  physicians,  nurses,   dieticians, 


liG      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

social  experts,  executives  and  secretarial  workers 
were  enrolled.  One  division  had  no  less  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  members.  Its  special  field  of 
work  was  found  among  the  rapatries. 

Two  units  were  sent  from  Vassar  College,  one  for 
canteen  service  and  one  for  reconstruction.  The 
work  done  by  Vassar  graduates  is  typical  of  work 
done  by  graduates  of  all  colleges.  A  worker  in  a 
canteen  unit  assigned  to  the  Bordeaux  district  wrote 
of  her  doings :  "  In  those  first  days  I  used  to  visit 
the  camp  hospital  every  morning  with  writing  paper 
and  tobacco  and  chocolate.  In  the  afternoons  I 
would  sell  things  at  the  canteen  and  soon  I  began  to 
make  lemonade.  Next  I  got  up  some  French  classes 
which  the  boys  seem  to  enjoy.  ...  In  this  last 
month,  I  have  been  made  chairman  of  the  en- 
tertainment committee  and  I  am  responsible  for 
seeing  there  is  something  happening  at  the  hut 
every  night.  We  have  an  inside  and  an  outside  stage 
and  when  I  can,  I  try  to  have  two  entertainments 
going  on  at  the  same  time,  as  one  cannot  begin  to 
take  care  of  all  the  men  who  flock  to  the  '  Y  '  in  the 
evenings.  Of  course  every  so  often  they  send  us  en- 
tertainers from  Bordeaux  but  not  nearly  so  often  as 
we  could  wish,  so  we  try  to  discover  the  talent  that 
passes  through  this  camp.  I  have  had  two  signs 
made: 


The  Women's  Colleges  147 

CAN  YOU  ENTERTAIN? 

If  you  dance,  sing,  tell  a  funny  story  or  do  any  kind  of 
stunt,  let  us  have  your  name  here.  We  want  you  to  be 
part  of  our  Camp  Hunt  theatrical  troupe. 

..."  It  isn't  really  possible  to  give  much  idea  in 
a  report  of  this  kind  of  all  the  miscellaneous  things 
that  crop  up  for  one  to  do  in  the  course  of  a  week. 
There  are  endless  wearying  details  to  the  arranging 
of  nightly  programs  —  tramping  from  one  barracks 
to  another  to  interview  your  '  talent/  going  to  com- 
manders to  secure  cooperation,  the  getting  of  '  de- 
tails '  of  men  to  help  you  with  the  actual  labor  of 
decorating  a  hall  or  gathering  materials,  hunting  up 
men  to  draw  posters  to  advertise  your  parties,  and 
multitudes  of  other  things  that  have  to  be  done. 
Sometimes  you  get  discouraged  with  the  enormity  of 
the  task  and  the  little  headway  you  seem  to  be  mak- 
ing but  soon  after  something  will  happen  —  if  it's 
no  more  than  some  boy's  exclamation,  '  Gee,  a  real 
American  girl !  ' —  to  make  you  realize  that  the  kind 
of  thing  the  women  over  here  are  doing  can't  be  tested 
for  tangible  results."  ^ 

It  is  not  the  primary  function  of  the  historian  to 
draw  inferences,  but  it  is  fitting  for  him  to  say  that 
the  record  of  graduates  and  students  of  American 

1  Letter  from  Irma  Waterhouse,  October  31,  1918  —  Vassar 
Quarterly,  February,  1919,  pages  117-118. 


148      Colleges  (uul   riiirersilies  in  the  Great  War 

colleges  for  women,  serving  in  the  war,  at  home  and 
abroad,  proves  that  their  hearts  have  the  same  pa- 
triotic beat  as  the  hearts  of  their  brothers.  The  half 
century  of  their  college  education  gives  conclusive 
evidence  that  they  are  the  saviors  of  the  race  quite 
as  truly  as  their  fathers,  brothers,  husbands  and  chil- 
dren. Their  strength  has  been  tried  and  found  not 
to  be  wanting  in  any  crisis  to  which  that  strength  has 
been  applied.  Their  education  creates  a  new  asset 
for  and  in  humanity.  The  higher  education  has  in 
the  past  been  the  subject  of  many  fears.  Among 
the  fears  was  the  apprehension  lest  this  education 
would  tend  to  make  women  remote  in  feeling  from 
the  world  and  unconscious  of  its  hard,  perplexing 
problems.  A  dread  was  felt  that  education  might 
tend  to  nourish  morbidity  and  unworthy  self-con- 
sciousness ;  and  that  this  self-consciousness  might 
create  vanity  and  a  spirit  of  disdain  and  contempt 
for  the  weaker  classes.  For  many  years  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  these  fears  seemed  to  fair-minded 
observers  to  be  groundless.  The  war  has  conclusively 
and  lastingly  proved  that  women  are  able  to  stand 
in  their  places,  doing  their  simple  duty,  whatever 
that  duty  might  be.  These  college  graduates  have 
been  decorated  for  bravery  under  fire.  The  number 
thus  honored  is  small.  But  in  conditions  demanding 
heroism  quite  as  great  and  endurance  quite  as  severe, 


The  Women's  Colleges  149 

without  resulting  decorations  of  war  crosses  or  orders 
of  merit,  they  have  proved  themselves  to  be  the 
worthiest. 

In  the  period  in  which  such  sei'vice  was  rendered 
abroad,  women  at  home,  still  students  in  the  colleges, 
were  seeking  to  do  their  duty.  Despite  "  alarums 
and  excursions,"  despite  Red  Cross  calls,  despite  the 
demands  of  the  manifold  war  work,  despite  the  perils 
of  infantile  paralysis,  and  the  devastating  and  dis- 
ruptions of  influenza  of  the  autumn  of  1918,  the  col- 
leges for  women  kept  steadily  at  their  daily  and 
weekly  tasks.  Students  continued  to  go  on  their  way 
toward  their  academic  goal.  An  example  of  such 
steadiness  and  progress  is  found  in  the  oldest  of  the 
gTcat  colleges  for  women.  The  President  of  Vassar 
College,  writing  in  his  annual  report,  said : 

"  It  is  recorded  in  the  Dean's  report  for  the  cur- 
rent academic  year  that,  while  in  June,  1917,  there 
were  689  who  had  never  had  a  deficiency,  of  the  1060 
students  now  in  college  742  have  never  had  a  condi- 
tion, and  85  per  cent,  of  the  student  body  are  above 
our  well  defined  requirements  of  the  graduation 
grade."  ^ 

Such  testimony  has  great  value  as  evidence  that, 

1  Vassar  College  Bulletin,  Vol.  VIIT,  No.  4,  Reports  of  the! 
President  and  the  Treasurer  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1919,  page  4. 


150      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

though  the  college  girl  was  moved  by  the  far-off  con- 
ditions of  the  world's  suffering,  yet  she  was  faithful 
to  the  immediate  duty. 


THE    RELIGION    OF    THE    STUDENT    SOLDIER 

The  American  college  is  a  religious  institution 
and  agency.  Historically  it  had  its  origin  in  the 
Christian  church.  The  religious  atmosphere  of  its 
beginning  has  continued  in  succeeding  decades  and 
centuries.  The  State  University  is  as  religious  as 
the  commonwealth  of  which  it  is  a  part  —  no  more  — 
no  less.  In  institutions  of  both  types,  the  privately 
endowed  and  the  publicly  supported,  the  religion  pre- 
vailing is  a  large  and  free  form  of  the  Christian  faith. 
The  sectarian  note  is  at  present  less  outspoken  than 
in  the  early  time,  and  the  reality  of  religious  belief 
still  continues. 

The  prevailing  type  of  religion  is  one  which  is 
represented  in  Micah's  sententious  interpretation  of 
doing  justice,  loving  mercy,  and  walking  humbly 
with  God.  Micah's  interpretation  is  continued  in 
Christ's  two  great  commandments  and  in  the  Beati- 
tudes of  his  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  It  is  a  type 
which  does  not  invite  pious  or  frequent  exliortation 

but  lays  emphasis  on  doing  right,   and  inspires  a 

151 


152      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

feeling  of  abhorrence  of  that  which  is  not  honorable 
and  square. 

It  has  been  affirmed  that  these  student  soldiers, 
possessing  a  sense  of  reality,  were  more  religious  than 
they  thought  themselves  to  be.  They  believed  in 
goodness  which,  someway,  they  did  not  quite  associ- 
ate with  God.  Whether  they  knew,  or  did  not  know, 
of  Matthew  Arnold's  definition  of  God,  they  some- 
way believed  in  a  power  not  themselves  which  made 
for  righteousness.  They  were  in  a  sense  pantheists. 
But  their  pantheism  was  of  a  very  personal  kind. 
One  cannot  say  that  they  were  "  God-intoxicated." 
But  one  can  say  that  they  found  the  soul  of  goodness 
within  themselves  which  was  reenforced  in  its  striv- 
ings and  struggles  by  the  spirit  of  goodness  without. 
In  fact,  the  spirit  of  badness,  which  was  manifest  to 
eye,  to  ear,  and  to  heart,  may  itself  have  given  em- 
phasis to  the  beneficent  soul  within  their  own  bosoms. 

This  type  of  religion  was  especially  pervasive. 
The  thoughts  of  students  on  the  campus  and  in  camp 
were  turned  Godward.  Face  to  face  with  what  are 
called  the  eternal  realities,  each  man  sought  to  ad- 
just himself  to  the  realities  in  feeling,  in  reflection, 
and  in  choice.  The  endeavor  for  self -adjustment 
was  not  as  active  or  as  timely  for  the  soldier 
student  on  the  campus  or  in  the  camp  as  for  the 
student  soldier  on  the  firing  line;  but  for  both  the 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      153 

eternal  motive  was  insistent  and  vital.  Perhaps  the 
strongest  note  in  this  endeavor  was  the  note  of  un- 
conscious self-sacrifice.  The  men  gave  themselves 
freely,  largely,  exultantly.  So  complete  was  the  ex- 
ultation that  the  sacrifice  was  not  at  all  interpreted  in 
terms  of  sacrifice.  The  college  student  in  his  re- 
flectiveness desired  to  help  humanity,  to  enlarge  and 
to  enrich  the  agencies  of  human  betterment,  to  pre- 
serve ideals  in  a  world  sordid  and  mean,  to  ennoble 
and  to  make  lasting  a  high  civilization.  In  the  se- 
curing of  these  lofty  purposes  he  was  willing  to  share 
in  the  last  and  supreme  act  of  devotion. 

The  work  which  the  college  did  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion was  usually  done  through  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  and  the  Knights  of  Columbus. 
Of  course,  chaplains  commissioned  by  the  govern- 
ment were  in  the  service  and  not  a  few  of  them  won 
great  results.  But  the  chaplain  not  infrequently 
stood  for  individualism,  and  individualism  in  this 
war  did  not  have  the  opportunity  for  usefulness 
which  it  possessed  in  former  wars.  Yet  not  a  few 
clergymen  gave  a  personal  service  of  unspeakable 
worth. 

The  chaplain  in  both  the  American  and  English 
armies  seems  to  have  had  a  job,  perhaps  no  harder 
than  other  wars  offer,  but  it  was  surrounded  by  con- 
ditions which  were  especially  trying.     Writing  of  the 


154      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

English  chaplains,  the  author  of  "  A  Private  in  the 
Guards  "  has  said : 

"  They  could  not  preach  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
because  they  thought  loving  your  enemies  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  the  war.  They  could  not  inveigh 
against  lust  because  the  medical  officer  was  of  opinion 
that  J^ature's  needs  must  be  satisfied.  They  could 
not  attack  bad  language  because  it  was  accepted  as 
manly.  They  could  not  attack  drunkenness  because 
it  was  the  men's  relaxation,  and  a  good  drinker  was 
considered  a  good  fighter.  Wliat  was  there  for  a 
poor  padre  to  say  to  the  men  ?  "  ^ 

But,  despite  these  limitations,  the  value  of  personal 
character  in  the  army  as  manifest  in  the  chaplain,  was 
of  primary  worth.^  If  he  represented  the  best  quali- 
ties of  manhood,  virile  and  sympathetic,  kind  without 
softness,  laborious  and  sacrificing,  determined 
to  help  every  man,  fearing  no  peril  and  accepting  uo 
favor,  he  was  a  force  at  once  commanding  and  per- 
suasive. But  if  he  were  cowardly  and  selfish,  the 
soldiers  had  no  respect  for  him,  and  gave  no  respon- 
sive hearing  to  his  words.  His  advice  did  not  com- 
mand their  regard,  and  his  character  received  merited 
contempt.  Yet  be  it  said  comprehensively  that  the 
American,  like  the  English  chaplain,  deserves  the  bet- 
i"A  Private  in  the  Guards,"  by  Stephen  Graham,  page  243. 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      155 

ter  interpretation  which  Mr.  Graham  gives  of  the 
English : 

"  I  met  whilst  I  was  in  France  some  ten  or  twelve 
chaplains.  They  all  had  pleasant  personalities,  and 
it  was  a  relief  to  converse  with  them  after  the  rough- 
and-ready  wit  of  the  men.  I  saw  them  from  a  differ- 
ent angle  from  that  in  which  they  were  seen  by  the 
officers.  What  struck  me  most  about  them  was  the 
extraordinary  way  they  seemed  to  make  their  minds 
fit  to  the  official  demands  made  upon  opinion.  They 
always  rapidly  absorbed  the  official  point  of  view 
about  the  war,  and  often  the  officers'  point  of  view 
as  well."  ^ 

It  was,  however,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation which,  through  service  religious  and  social, 
secured  the  best  results.  The  college  contributed  of 
its  students,  of  its  professors  as  well  as  of  its  grad- 
uates, to  this  enrollment.  The  "  hut "  became  a 
unique  place  in  every  camp,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
This  hut  to  the  soldier  stood  for  his  home.  It  gave 
not  only  shelter,  but  also  recreation,  friendliness, 
comfort.  It  represented  an  ideal,  realized  to  the  sol- 
dier, of  human  well  being.  It  also  helped  to  main- 
tain morale  as  well  as  to  give  happiness.  The  work 
was  established  as  a  large  human  work.     Whatever 

1  Ibid.,  page  244. 


loii      Collcycs  and  L'nicersilies  in  the  Great  War 

related  to  the  welfare  of  the  soldier  as  an  individual 
or  of  the  group  was  regarded  as  its  function.  It  was 
recreational  service  in  the  largest  sense.  It  con- 
sisted in  managing  a  canteen,  or  a  camp  post,  in  sell- 
ing cigarettes,  chocolate,  and  whatever  might  min- 
ister to  the  soldier's  happiness,  in  talking  to  wounded 
men  in  hospital,  in  writing  letters  for  those  who  could 
not  write,  in  recommending  books  to  those  who  were 
indifferent,  in  arranging  boxing  bouts  for  exercise 
and  for  fun,  in  getting  instruments  for  a  brass  band 
and  in  organizing  the  players.  Such  work  did  not 
supplement  sermons,  yet,  the  sermons  were  not  neg- 
lected. The  traditionally  religious  side  of  the  serv- 
ice might  seem  to  be  neglected,  but  the  religious  im- 
pulse was  consciously,  or  unconsciously,  at  the  base  of 
the  life  of  many  student  soldiers. 

There  arose  toward  the  close  of  the  war  criticism. 

The  criticism  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation touched  both  personnel  and  method.  First : 
Unworth}^  men  were  selected  as  secretaries  or  field 
executives.  Second:  The  work  was  commercial- 
ized, or  was  not  made  properly  Christian.  In  its 
commercial  relation  goods  were  sold,  it  was  charged, 
at  a  higher  price  than  the  costs  warranted.  The  an- 
swer to  these  criticisms  was  made,  that  in  an  en- 
rollment of  executives  numbering  several  thousand 
men,  it  was  to  be  expected  that  some  would  be  found 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      157 

either  incompetent  or  dishonest,  or  both.  The  second 
charge,  of  a  lack  of  the  religious  element,  was  met  by 
the  interpretation  that  the  conditions  did  not  allow, 
or  did  not  at  least  provide  for,  religious  presentations. 
One  chaplain  said  to  me  that  the  charge  could  not 
have  been  made  if  the  word  "  Christian  "  had  been 
struck  out  of  the  corporate  name.  In  all  these  di- 
verse services  college  men  held  a  large  share.  Col- 
lege teachers  of  French  became  teachers  to  American 
soldiers.  College  graduates  of  all  callings  became 
executives  and  undergraduates  helped  in  many  and 
diverse  fields.^ 

1  The  following  examples  are  tj'pical  of  the  variety  of  the 
services  to  which  college  men  gave  themselves: 

A   bishop's    varied    SUNDAY 

"  The  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  Erie,  Pa.,  is  having  the 
time  of  his  life  over  here  among  the  soldiers.  He  is  one  of 
those  who  have  made  good  as  a  speaker  to  the  soldiers,  and 
he  itinerates  among  the  huts,  visiting  with  the  men  by  day 
and  addressing  meetings  at  night.  His  everyday  vestments 
are  a  uniform,  and  the  fact  that  he  is  a  bishop  means  a  deal 
less  to  the  boys  than  that  he  is  '  a  good  Scout.'  Naturally 
on  Sunday  the  bishop  administers  the  communion  at  least 
once,  for  the  soldiers  show  a  desire  for  the  sacrament  greater 
than  they  display  at  home.  Recently  after  the  first  large  ac- 
tion in  which  the  Americans  were  independently  engaged,  the 
bishop  held  two  communion  services  for  the  men  on  Sunday 
morning  —  and  in  the  afternoon  he  sold  cigarettes  and  candy 
over  the  counter  of  the  '  Y.'  And  everybody  who  knows  the 
conditions  here  believes  that  the  latter  action  was  also  a 
Christian  ministry. 

OTIIEB   VARIETIES    OF   "  Y  "    WORKERS 

"  The  personnel  of  this  many  sided  work  for  the  troops  is  an 


158      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Perhaps  the  most  distinctive  work,  religious  or 
semi-religious,  done  by  the  colleges  through  their 
students  was  found  in  the  contribution  of  money  made 
for  the  relief  of  prisoners  of  war,  for  men  in  the 

exhaustive  topic.  A  Standard  Oil  magnate  was  over  here 
looking  into  things  and  getting  a  sample  of  what  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  ministry  is.  On  his  first  night  at  the  front,  when  his 
truck  had  been  under  the  German  fire,  the  supply  of  gasoline 
gave  out,  as  if  in  mockery  of  the  oil  man's  presence,  and  he 
had  to  walk  several  miles  through  the  night  to  get  to  the 
base.  Then  he  went  oflf  to  a  difficult  front-line  hut,  where 
he  learned  how  to  work  without  being  able  to  call  upon  a 
secretary  or  a  staff  of  assistants,  and  to  his  credit  be  it  said 
he  did  good  service  for  the  soldiers,  none  of  whom  knew  that 
he  was  not  a  preacher  or  other  professional  Y,  M.  C.  A. 
worker. 

EXJOYMEXT    IN    HARD,    D.^XGEROrS    WORK 

"  These  Y.  ]\I.  C.  A.  men  got  farther  to  the  front  than  even 
the  correspondents.  Three  have  been  wounded  thus  far,  and 
one  woman  worker  has  been  killed  by  shell  fire.  It  is  almost 
a  daily  experience  for  the  drivers  of  the  trucks  to  pass  through 
the  fire  zone,  and  I  noticed  that  the  Red  Triangle  on  one  of 
the  trucks  had  been  dented  by  shrapnel.  These  men  carry  gas 
masks  as  naturally  and  as  inevitably  as  the  cowboys  used  to 
carry  pistols.  A  steel  helmet  is  a  part  of  every  driver's 
equipment. 

"  All  this  quickly  becomes  a  matter  of  course.  On  the  front 
above  Toul  I  have  met  repeatedly  a  business  man  of  Colum- 
bus, 0.,  who  has  left  his  store  and  banks  and  other  interests, 
and  is  out  here  in  the  fire  zone,  working  night  and  day  upon 
the  task  of  organizing  and  directing  the  business  end  of  sup- 
plying the  soldiers  with  the  incidentals  which  can  be  got  only 
through  the  '  Y.'  It  is  the  hardest  work  this  man  has  ever 
done,  but  never  has  he  enjoyed  anything  more. 

"  In  one  of  the  base  cities,  where  there  are  many  American 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      159 

armies,  and  for  the  wounded  in  the  war  zones.  Over 
a  million  dollars  was  given  by  the  students  and  offi- 
cers of  the  American  colleges  for  this  beautiful  and 
unique  purpose.  The  amount  contributed  by  differ- 
ent colleges  is  significant  and  impressive.  N^orth- 
western  University,  $12,000 ;  University  of  Chicago, 
$15,427;  University  of  Illinois,  $27,563;  Purdue 
University,  $18,960;  Iowa  State  College,  $23,000; 
University  of  Michigan,  $23,000 ;  University  of 
Minnesota,  $27,500;  University  of  N"ebraska,  $21,- 
057;  Ohio  State  University,  $17,107;  Western  Ee- 
serve  University,  $12,961 ;  University  of  Wisconsin, 
$21,000.  The  money  thus  raised  was  called  a 
Friendship  Fund.  It  was  spent,  as  I  have  said,  in 
aiding  prisoners  and  in  promoting  the  efiiciency  of  all 
the  causes  in  which  the  students  were  interested. 
The  worth  of  the  service  thus  rendered  overseas  was 
great ;  the  worth  of  the  work  done  for  the  givers  them- 
selves was  even  greater.     Above  all  else  it  proved  the 

troops,  there  is  a  Western  physician,  with  his  two  adult 
daughters,  who  is  running  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  caf6  and  concert  hall 
for  the  men,  at  his  own  charge.  Few  American  families,  out- 
side of  actual  military  service,  are  doing  so  much  for  the 
cause  as  he. 

"  Upwards  of  2000  *  Y  '  workers  are  now  in  FYance.  Seventy- 
five  per  cent,  of  them  have  '  made  good.'  But  as  many  more 
beyond  draft  age,  are  needed.  They  have  to  stand  in  the 
stead  of  mother  and  fathor  and  home  and  church  to  an  entire 
army  of  boys."  William  T.  Ellis  in  Boston  Ti-anscript,  June 
Ist,  1918. 


160      Colleges  and  Univcrsilies  in  the  Great  War 

unity  of  the  hearts  of  all  students  with  each  other, 
and  the  unity  of  their  hearts  with  all  men  in  distress. 

The  training  given  to  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  workers  was  entrusted  in  certain  cases 
to  members  of  the  college  faculties.  Members  of  the 
Princeton  faculty,  in  the  spring  of  1918,  served  as 
teachers  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  who  were 
about  to  go  abroad.  Courses  in  conversational 
French  were  perhaps  the  most  common,  but  also  the 
teaching  took  on  a  larger  relationship,  being  con- 
cerned with  French  life,  ideals,  manners  and  cus- 
toms. In  this  service  the  teachers  of  Romance  in 
all  colleges  of  America  felt  a  deep  interest.  Not  a 
few  of  them  volunteered  themselves,  but  also  they 
promoted  the  going  of  their  students.  Through  ad- 
dresses and  through  their  writings  they  quickened 
the  interest  of  thoughtful  men  in  the  service  to  be 
rendered  by  colleges  through  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in 
France,  in  England,  and  wherever  was  found  the 
American  soldier. 

In  the  broad  interpretation  of  religion,  it  is  also 
to  be  said  that  the  American  college,  through  the 
same  Association  and  by  other  methods,  did  much  in 
the  promotion  of  the  moral  purity  of  the  life  of  the 
American  soldier.  Without  doubt  the  American 
Army  was  the  cleanest  of  all  armies.  Toward  this 
result  not  only  the  religious  and  the  ethical  impulse 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      161 

was  directed,  but  also  medical  science  and  medical 
cooperation.  The  peril  of  venereal  disease  was  con- 
stantly impressed  upon  soldiers;  and  in  official  and 
unofficial  ways  the  duty  of  clean-mindedness  and  of 
clean  living  were  enforced.^  Another  special  form 
of  religious  and  social  work  was  found  in  the  ambu- 
lance field  service.  This  service,  beginning  before 
the  formal  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the 
war,  enrolled  not  far  from  two  thousand  men. 
These  students  went  straight  from  their  class-rooms 
to  Flanders  Fields  and  Vosges  Mountains.  Toward 
this  number  Harvard  sent  more  than  three  hundred; 
Yale  and  Princeton  about  two  hundred  men  each. 
It  was  the  service  of  the  good  Samaritan  rendered 

1  An  American  college  professor,  Lieutenant  Raymond  W. 
Phelan,  issued  a  note  entitled — "Our  New  Morality":  — 

"  Sexually  speaking,  one  of  three  courses  will  be  followed  by 
every  American  soldier  entering  France.  ( 1 )  He  will  practice 
the  sexual  continence  tliat  his  commander  is  expected  to  teach, 
and  enforce  by  scrupulously  moral  conduct  on  his  own  part. 
(2)  He  may  take  where  opportunity  offers  dastardly  advan- 
tage of  the  moral  women  of  the  French  nation.  (3)  He  may, 
at  the  cost  of  future  disease  and  misery  in  America,  patronize 
the  unfortunate  woman.  Many  and  many  a  soldier  has  with 
evident  honesty  and  sincerity  of  purpose  assured  the  writer 
that  he  has  lived  a  clean  life  in  the  army  and  will  continue 
to  do  so.  If  the  question  of  sexual  morality  is  pursued  by 
commanders  with  vigor  and  determination,  may  not  the  Amer- 
ican soldier  manfully  respond,  and  give  us  as  one  of  the 
many  splendid  products  of  the  war  a  greatly  improved  stand- 
ard of  moral  conduct  among  American  men  ?  " 


102      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

under  perils  far  more  perilous  by  day  and  by  night, 
near  front-line  trenches  and  in  shell-swept  areas,  than 
the  good  Samaritan  ever  dreamed  of. 

Service  of  the  same  glorious  type  was  given  by  the 
men  of  Oxford  and  of  other  British  Universities. 
Writing  near  the  close  of  the  year  1916,  an  Oxford 
lecturer  said : 

"  It  is  two  years  now  since  they  began  to  go  over 
to  Belgium  and  the  occupied  territories  of  France; 
and  there,  setting  themselves  between  the  hammer 
and  the  anvil,  among  suspicion  and  surveillance,  in 
unremitting  toil  and  with  patient  organization,  they 
labored  to  relieve  the  destitute  and  to  visit  the  needy 
in  their  affliction.  Such  work  became,  as  it  seemed,  a 
part  of  their  Oxford  course;  and  each  new  student 
who  came  from  x^merica,  after  staying  a  little  while, 
crossed  over,  as  if  in  duty  bound,  for  his  term  of 
service  on  the  other  side.  As  time  went  on  new  doors 
were  opened  and  new  duties  were  undertaken. 
When  the  bombardment  of  Verdun  was  fiercest,  and 
the  sleet  of  iron  and  fire  drove  with  the  deadliest  in- 
tensity against  its  walls,  the  American  Ambulance 
was  there,  and  American  students  were  with  the  am- 
bulance of  their  country.  Turning  chauffeurs  and 
mechanics  —  chauffeurs  and  mechanics  of  an  infinite 
resource   and   sagacity  —  they   drove  thousands   of 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      163 

the  wounded  soldiers  of  France,  along  icebound,  slip- 
pery roads,  from  the  field  of  battle  to  their  haven  of 
rest;  and  if  their  cars  broke  down,  as  American  cars 
would  sometimes  do,  they  set  them  triumphantly  to 
rights  by  the  roadside,  and  in  a  few  hours  were  driv- 
ing quietly  forward  again  to  their  base.  Kor  were 
their  goings  and  doings  only  in  Belgium  and  in 
France ;  they  went  even  farther  afield,  and  there  were 
some  who,  seeking  the  farthest  bounds  of  the  far-flung 
battle  line,  went  out  to  find  ways  of  service  and 
ministration  in  India,  or  in  Africa,  or  in  Mesopo- 
tamia." ^ 

The  general  effect  of  war  and  its  circumstance  on 
the  religious  beliefs  and  practice  of  college  men  was 
at  least  sixfold. 

First :  the  war  served  to  exalt  the  student's  and  the 
graduate's  sense  of  patriotism  and  of  humanitarian- 
ism  into  a  religion,  or, —  to  change  the  point  of  view, 
—  it  served  to  incarnate  the  chief  expression  of  his 
religion  in  his  love  for  country  and  for  man.  If  re- 
ligion be  defined  as  the  relation  which  man  holds  to 
God,  the  college  man's  religion  in  the  course  of  the 
war  soon  passed  out  of  this  definition  into  a  faith  in 
and  a  loyalty  to  his  country  and  to  all  men. 

1  "  brothers  and  Sons  in  War  Time,"  by  Ernest  Barker, 
pages  60  and  61. 


164:      Colleges  ami  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Second:  Such  a  religion  was  therefore  essentially 
an  ethical  system  and  interpretation  of  the  relation 
of  men  to  each  other.  The  soldier  student  believed, 
and  practiced,  not  only  that  he  should  love  his  neigh- 
bor as  himself,  but  even  more  than  himself.  He 
should  be  prepared,  and  be  glad,  to  die  for  his  neigh- 
bor. The  willingness  to  die  for  one's  neighbor  has, 
of  course,  tens  of  thousands  of  illustrations,  and,  what 
is  perhaps  more  important,  the  willingness  to  endure 
pain,  dreaded  more  than  death  itself,  has  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  illustrations.  These  examples  are 
equally  common  among  college  men  and  among  those 
who  dwell  without  academic  walls.  An  English 
chaplain  tells  of  his  entering  a  dugout  just  taken 
from  the  Germans  and  of  finding  himself  stifled  with 
the  foul  air.  He  said  something  sympathetic  to 
the  man  who  lay  on  a  bed  of  clay  beside  him.  The 
man's  answer  was,  "  '  This !  This  is  paradise  to 
what  we've  been  through  before  we  took  the  ridge.'  " 
Continuing,  Dr.  Kelman  says,  "  Add  to  this  the  con- 
stant call  to  face  atrocious  danger,  and  the  pain  of 
wounds  while  they  lay  untended  on  the  field.  Then 
remember  the  thousands  who  have  gone  with  open 
eyes  to  certain  death,  to  hold  an  outpost  or  to  save  a 
company ;  and  the  many  instances  of  ofiicers  and  men 
who  have  thrown  themselves  upon  live  bombs  that 
they  might  save  their  neighbors  by  the  sacrifice  of 


The  Religion  of  the  Student  Soldier      165 

their  o^m  lives,  or  in  other  ways  have  deliberately 
given  their  lives  for  others."  ^ 

Third :  The  third  effect  lay  in  what  may  be  said  to 
be  the  realm  of  the  imagination.  Yet  this  imagina- 
tion was  rather  a  force  than  a  field  of  the  college 
man's  religion.  It  stood  for  the  intellectual  way  in 
which  religion  made  its  appeal.  It  lay  in  the  sense 
that  one  is  living  a  gTcat  life,  doing  a  great  work, 
inspired  by  a  great  motive,  measuring  up  to  the  great- 
est possibilities  within  his  bosom.  It  is  keeping  step 
with  one's  fellow  soldier  in  life's  march.  It  is  the 
sense  of  music  in  one's  soul.  It  is  the  meaning  of 
the  lump  in  the  throat. 

Fourth :  But  while  this  sense  of  imagination  was  a 
method  of  interpretation  of  the  student's  relation  to 
God,  this  religion  was  also  to  him  a  deep  and  ever  in- 
creasing sense  of  loyalty.  The  gospel  of  sincerity,  of 
truthfulness  to  the  fact,  was  dear  to  him.  He  de- 
tested sham,  pretense,  counterfeit.  He  hated  the 
false  as  the  devil  holy  water.  His  hatred  was  col- 
ored through  and  through  with  scorn  and  contempt. 
This  sense  of  reality  caused  him  to  turn  with  confi- 
dence to  the  men  who  as  clergymen,  as  priests,  or  as 
Christian  Association  secretaries  called  out  his  belief 
in  their  integrity  and  honesty.     This  sense  of  reality 

1 "  The  War  and  Preaching,"  by  Rev.  Dr.  John  Kelman, 
page  86. 


IGG      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

toucliod  both  bis  assent  to  truth  and  his  friendship 
for  the  individual. 

Fifth:  This  same  sense  of  reality  inevitably  re- 
sulted in  a  simplicity  of  religious  beliefs.  The  col- 
lege man's  creed  was  short.  The  Fatherhood  of 
God  was  its  first,  and  chief,  article,  and  perhaps  its 
last  also  and  this  article  had  phrases  which  possibly 
belonged  quite  as  much  to  the  heart  as  to  the  reason. 
It  was  interpreted  in  the  terms  of  the  emotions  and 
sentiments  quite  as  often,  and  always  as  deeply,  as 
in  terms  of  the  intellect.  It  recognized,  often  uncon- 
sciously, Pascal's  truth  that  the  heart  has  its  reasons 
of  which  the  reason  knows  not. 

Sixth:  Such  a  simple  creed,  of  course,  led  to  an 
elimination  of  the  great  sectarian  divisions  which 
now  afflict  the  church.  I^ot  only  were  the  minor 
Protestant  distinctions  wiped  out,  but  also  the  Jew- 
ish, the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  faiths 
were  in  certain  foundations  united.  Over  the  grave 
of  a  brave  soldier,  the  rabbi,  the  priest  and  the  minis- 
ter offered  a  common  prayer  to  one  God.  The  ele- 
mental and  fundamental  realities,  the  suffering  and 
the  fellowship  of  life  and  of  death,  joined  men  to- 
gether in  religious  faith  and  act. 


XI 


POETEY  AS  AN  INTEKPEETATION  OF  THE  WAK 

Literature,  as  a  force  and  form  of  life,  has  its 
fount  and  origin  in  the  college,  and  it  is  continued 
by  the  academic  tradition.     The  literature  of  the  war 
has  already  taken  on  several  forms, —  history,  essay, 
letters,  poetry.     Of  course,  these  writings  are  only 
the  beginning  of  interpretations  which  will  go  on  for 
unnumbered  centuries.     But,  at  the  present  moment, 
the  poetry,  which  the  war  inspired,  is  probably  the 
most  significant  contribution  of  a  literary  kind,  made 
by  the  graduate  or  student.     For,  in  all  definitions  of 
poetry,  feeling  and  imagination  are  the  true  con- 
stants, and  feeling  and  imagination  are  most  domi- 
nant in  the  heart  and  mind  of  youth,  and  possibly 
most  completely  dominant  in  the  heart  and  mind 
of  the  youth  of  the  academic  plane  trees.     Yet  it 
should  at  once  be  said  that  the  contribution,  made 
by  American  college  students  and  graduates  to  the 
poetry  of  the  war,  is   slight.     Compared  with  the 
contribution  made  by  the  graduates  of  British  uni- 
versities, it  is  small  in  amount  and  meager  in  quality. 

107 


lOS      Colleges  culJ   L  nicersities  in  (he  Great  War 

An  examination  of  the  larger  share  of  all  poems 
written  by  college  men  of  both  nations  necessitates 
the  conclusion  that  they  do  not  represent  the  full  tide 
of  English  song.  The  reason  is  perhaps  evident 
enough  for  the  American  paucity. 

Although,  in  a  real  human  sense,  the  war  was  Amer- 
ica's from  August,  1914, —  in  a  technical,  govern- 
mental sense,  it  was  not  America's  until  almost  three 
years  after.  The  period  of  America's  participation 
was  brief.  The  war  was  also  three  thousand  miles 
away.  It  was  farther  away  from  the  majority  of  the 
American  people  and  of  most  college  men  than  three 
thousand  miles  of  distance  would  intimate.  For  re- 
moteness in  relationship  added  to  remoteness  in  dis- 
tance. It  was  not  until  the  declaration  of  war  was 
made  that  the  academic  flags  were  unfurled  or  the 
college  bugle  sounded.  Therefore  the  poet  was 
dumb,  as  the  government  seemed  to  some  numb. 

The  English  poetry  of  the  war,  coming  from  either 
Oxford  or  Cambridge,  from  Scottish  or  Midland  Uni- 
versity, was  unlike  the  typical  war  songs.  It  had 
none  of  the  martial  glory  of  the  "  Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade."  It  was  likewise  remote  from  Campbell's 
"  Songs  of  Battle,"  "  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic,"  "  Na- 
poleon and  the  British  Sailor,"  and  "  The  Power  of 
Russia."  Such  were  not  the  themes  of  which  the  Ox- 
ford poet  dreamed.     The  English  verse  of  the  war 


Poetry  as  an  Interpretation  of  the  War      169 

was  rather  moral  than  martial,  rather  psychological 
than  patriotic,  rather  human  than  national  or  even 
international.  It  was  indeed  concerned  with  the  di- 
vine quite  as  much  as  with  the  human. 

The  poem  of  both  the  American  and  the  British 
student  was  the  poetry  of  the  inner  life.  It  was  what 
the  philosophers  call  subjective.  It  might  be  named 
romantic,  in  case  one  substitutes  man  for  nature  in 
the  usual  definition.  It  was  an  aspiration,  like 
Gothic  architecture.  Little,  or  none,  of  the  complete- 
ness of  the  classical  type  did  it  have.  Many  of  these 
verses  are  like  the  Hebrew  Psalms,  poems  of  the  per- 
sonal life,  of  character,  of  struggle,  of  resignation,  of 
victory.  They  remind  one  of  George  Herbert's 
precious  verse.  The  typical  poem  was  concerned 
with  righteousness  and  honor,  with  endurance  of 
heart  and  will,  with  hopefulness  in  darkness  and  in 
days  of  despair,  with  the  glory  of  sacrifice,  with  the 
broodingness  of  mystery,  with  the  belief  that  the  un- 
seen is  the  eternal  and  that  the  unseen  means  the 
right,  with  sympathy  for  the  sorrowing  and  with  ex- 
ultation for  the  glorified,  with  hatred  of  despotism 
and  with  the  beauty  of  the  new  republic  of  man,  with 
the  heroism  of  our  common  humanity,  with  the  maj- 
esty of  concerted  and  cooperative  obedience,  with 
patience  in  the  dies  irae,  with  the  constant  presence 
of  the  dead  and  of  their  imperishable  life. 


170      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Illustrations  of  these  sentiments  are  more  easily 
found  in  English  than  in  American  verse.  Captain 
Charles  Hamilton  Sorley,  who  died  in  October,  1915, 
at  the  age  of  twenty  years,  cries  out : 

"  And  let  me  stand  so  and  defy  them  all. 
The  martyr's  exultation  leaps  in  me. 
And  I  am  joyous,  joyous !  "  ^ 

Captain  Eichard  Dennys,  who  was  killed  at  the 
Somme,  exclaims: 

"  My  day  was  happy  —  and  perchance 
The  coming  night  is  full  of  stars."  ^ 

Rifleman  S.^  Donald  Cox,  in  his  song  "  To  my 
Mother,"  says: 

"  If  I  should  fall,  grieve  not  that  one  so  weak  and 
poor  as  I  should  die,  but  say 

'I  too  had  a  son; 
He  died  for  England's  sake ! '"  ^ 

Lieutenant  Mackintosh,  of  the  Seaforth  Highland- 
ers, before  his  death  in  action,  in  ISTovember,  1917, 
writes : 

iThe  South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  April,  1918,  "The  Spirit 
of  Youth  in  Arms,"  by  Walter  Graham,  page  91. 

2  Ibid.,  page  92. 

3  Ibid. 


Poetry  as  an  Interpretation  of  the  War      lYl 

"  If  I  die  to-morrow 
I  shall  go  happily. 
With  the  flush  of  battle  on  my  face 
I  shall  walk  with  an  eager  pace 
The  road  I  cannot  see."  ^ 

Such  examples  could  be  continued  to  the  number 
of  almost  three  score  of  those  who  fell  singing.  If 
Germany  had  her  Korner,  friend  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  student  at  Leipsic,  whose  last  poem  was 
written  the  very  day  of  his  last  battle  —  a  song  to  his 
bride,  his  sword,  who,  at  less  than  twenty-two  years 
of  age,  fell  fighting  for  the  cause  of  liberty,  England 
and  America  had  their  singing  sons  who  died  also  on 
the  field  of  honor.  Their  years  were  few.  Their 
poems  were  also  few.  But  the  great  experience 
brought  into  vivid,  and  often  powerful,  expression 
what  would  have  required  many  years  of  the  daily 
round  and  common  task  to  effect. 

Of  all  the  English  singers,  the  poems  of  Thomas 
Hardy  and  of  Rupert  Brooke  perhaps  give  the  richest 
promise  of  lastingness.  Rupert  Brooke's  five  son- 
nets go  down  the  deepest  and  reach  up  the  highest.  I 
cannot  deny  myself  the  right  of  quoting  the  familiar 
and  ever  moving  lines  entitled,  "  The  Soldier  "  :  — 

1  In  making  these  quotations,  I  wish  specially  to  acknowledge 
the  great  service  which  my  associate,  Walter  Graham,  has 
given. 


172      CoUcgcs  and   riiircrsifics  in   ihe  Great  War 

If  I  sliould  die,  think  only  this  of  me: 

That  tliere's  some  corner  of  a  foreign  field 
That  is  forever  England.     There  shall  be 

In  that  rich  earth  a  richer  dust  concealed; 
A  dust  whom  England  bore,  shaped,  made  aware. 

Gave,  once,  her  liowers  to  love,  her  ways  to  roam, 
A  body  of  England's,  breathing  English  air, 

Washed  by  the  rivers,  blest  by  suns  of  home. 

And  think,  this  heart,  all  evil  shed  away, 
A  pulse  in  the  eternal  mind,  no  less 

Gives  somewhere  back  the  thoughts  by  England 
given ; 
Her  sights  and  sounds;  dreams  happy  as  her  day; 
And  laughter,  learnt  of  friends ;  and  gentleness. 
In  hearts  at  peace,  under  an  English  heaven.^ 

With  Rupert  Brooke,  I  associate  an  American,  a 
son  of  Harvard,  Alan  Seeger. 

Brooke  and  Seeger  were  alike  in  age,  alike  in  gen- 
eral educational  condition,  although  one  came  from 
the  American  and  the  other  from  the  English  Cam- 
bridge, alike  in  a  desire  to  know  and  to  feel  experi- 
ence, alike  in  that  to  each  life  was  a  cup  which  each 
willed  to  drink,  both  to  its  fullness  and  to  its  depths, 
alike  in  binding  to  themselves  friendships,  not  with 
hoops  of  steel,  but  with  willowy  bands  of  mutual 
love,   alike  in   wide   travel,   and   alike   in   romantic 

1  "  The  Collected  Poems  of  Rupert  Brooke,"  John  Lane  Com- 
pany, with  Introduction  by  George  Edward  Woodberry, 
page  111. 


Poetry  as  an  Interpretation  of  the  ^yar      173 

vision  and  power  and  promise.  They  were  also  alike 
in  coming  into  and  in  giving  up  life,  within  a  few 
months  of  each  other,  in  its  early  years,  while  still 
the  victory  was  seen  only  by  the  eye  of  faith.  Of  the 
two,  the  Englishman  is  undoubtedly  the  greater.  An 
assured  place  he  holds  in  the  gallery  of  song.  But 
Seeger  is  also  sure  of  a  lasting  place,  even  if  not  so 
high.  His  "  I  have  a  Rendezvous  with  Death  "  and 
his  "  Ode  in  Memory  of  the  American  Volunteers 
Fallen  for  France "  are  to  endure  as  bronze.  I 
wish  to  write  out  "  I  have  a  Rendezvous  with  Death," 
as  standing  for  the  most  moving  poem  written  by  an 
American  college  gTaduate  who  served  as  a  soldier. 

I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 
At  some  disputed  barricade, 
When  Spring  comes  back  with  rustling  shade 
And  apple-blossoms  fill  the  air  — 
I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 
When  Spring  brings  back  blue  days  and  fair. 

It  may  be  he  shall  take  my  band 
And  lead  me  into  his  dark  land, 
And  close  my  eyes  and  quench  my  breath  — 
It  may  be  I  shall  pass  him  still. 
I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 
On  some  scarred  slope  of  battered  hill, 
When  Spring  comes  round  again  this  year 
And   the   first   meadow-flowers   appear. 

God  knows  'twere  better  to  be  deep 
Pillowed  in  silk  and  scented  down. 


17-i      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Where  Love  throbs  out  in  blissful  sleep, 
Pulse  nigh  to  pulse,  and  breath  to  breath, 
W^iere  hushed  awakenings  are  dear.  .  .  . 
But  I've  a  rendezvous  with  Death 
At  midnight  in  some  flaming  town, 
When  Spring  trips  north  again  this  year. 
And  I  to  my  pledged  word  am  true, 
I  shall  not  fail  that  rendezvous.^ 

It  must  not,  however,  be  inferred  that  all  the 
poetry  of  college  soldiers,  or  of  soldiers  of  any  type, 
was  of  the  heroic  couplet  only.  All  experiences  of 
the  camp,  of  the  march,  of  the  mess,  of  the  drill,  came 
into  view.  Some  of  the  resulting  verses  were  witty, 
some  were  humorous,  some  were  profane  —  sinlessly 
and  properly  profane!  Yet  the  quantity  of  happy 
verse  was  small,  and  its  general  quality  was  that  of 
doggerel.  Perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  such  verse 
was  a  burlesque  of  Kipling's  "  Gunga  Din  "  which, 
under  the  title  of  "  Hunk  o'  Tin,"  was  dear  to  sol- 
diers both  at  home  and  overseas.^     The  simple  truth 

1  "  Poems  by  Alan  Seeger,"  with  an  Introduction  by  William 
Archer,  page  144. 

2  The  paint  is  not  so  good 
And  no  doubt  you'll  find  the  hood 
Will  rattle  like  a  boiler  shop  en  route; 
The  radiator  may  boil 
And  perhaps  she's  leakin'  oil, 
Then  often  times  the  horn  declines  to  toot. 
But  when  the  night  is  black 
And  there's  blesses  to  take  back 
And  they  hardly  give  you  time  to  take  a  smoke; 


Poetry  as  an  Interpretation  of  the  War     175 

is  that  life  and  death,  suffering  and  shock,  and  all  ex- 
periences, actual  or  imagined,  were  altogether  too 
common  and  too  somber  to  invite  the  light  touch.  I 
have  sought  among  many  pages  of  verse  to  find  ex- 
amples of  quickened  pleasure  and  merriment  in  the 
wTiter.  One  of  the  few,  which  I  do  venture  to  quote, 
seems  to  bear  in  its  spirit  the  ring  of  some  of  Kip- 
ling's lines.  Kipling  ever  appeals  to  the  soldier's 
soul.  It  has  the  title  of  "  The  Song  of  the  Dead  Am- 
bulance Men." 

We're  sick  of  your  harps  and  your  haloes,  of  your  well- 
kept  heavenly  things, 

Of  your  roads  without  even  a  shell-hole  (we'll  be  damned 
if  we'll  use  your  wings). 

We're  sick  and  tired  of  smoking  when  cigarettes  flow  so 
free 

That  we  throw  the  butts  half-burnt  beside  your  Pearly 
Sea. 

We  know  that  we  died  like  heroes  for  the  lives  of  the  men 
who  fell. 

It  is  mighty  good  to  feel 

When  you're  sitting  at  the  wheel, 

She'll  be  running  when  the  bigger  cars  are  broke. 

Oh  it's  Din  Din  Din. 

If  it  happens  there's  a  ditch  you've  skidded  in 

Don't  be  worried  but  just  shout 

Till  some  poilu  boosts  you  out 

And  you're  glad  she's  not  so  heavy  Hunk  o'  tin. 
Dedicated  to  the  Memory  of  Car  No.  423,  S.  S.  U.  13  Mort 
May    8th,    1917,    by    C.    C.    Battershell.     From    Weekly    pub- 
lished in  Paris. 


17(>      Colleges  ami  [')iiL'ersUles  in  the  Great  War 

But  tliat's  no  smitten  reason  why  we  have  to  grow  fat  as 

hell ! 
Say,  give  us  the  ghost  of  an  ambulance  and  let  us  drive 

away 
Somewhere,  where  there's  an  angel-fight,  and  there,  by  the 

Lord,  we'll  stay.^ 

These  numerous  quotations  may  tend  to  give  the 
impression  that  it  was  only  the  college  men  who  fell 
fighting  who  wrote  great  odes.  J^o  impression  could 
be  further  from  the  fact.  Though  the  toll  of  singers 
was  heart-breaking  —  some  fifty  in  number,  of 
American  and  of  English  birth  —  yet  there  were 
singers  who  were  not  able  to  wear  khaki,  or,  if  they 
wore  it,  who  did  not  fall,  whose  voices  will  last  for 
the  decades  or  the  centuries.  The  psychological  im- 
agination may  interpret  war  quite  as  deeply  in  the 
college  yard  and  lawn  as  in  the  trench,  or  in  the  hos- 
pital. The  only  question  is  whether  the  writer  does 
possess  the  imagination  of  a  poet.  The  actual  par- 
ticipation in  the  battle,  if  adding  to  the  historic  im- 
pressiveness  of  the  scene,  may  yet  serve  to  congest 
and  to  stifle  the  imagination.  In  order  to  discover 
war  poems  which  were  not  written  with  the  point  of 
the  sword  dipped  in  the  blood  of  the  writer,  one  need 
not  go  beyond  Tennyson's  "  Ode  on  the  Death  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,"  or  Whitman's  "  Drum  Taps." 

1  Field  Service  Bulletin,  June  22,  1918,  published  weekly  at 
Paris,  "  The  Song  of  Dead  Ambulance  Men,"  by  S.  L.  Conklin. 


Poetry  as  an  Interpretatimi  of  the  War      177 

!N^either  the  Englishman  nor  the  American  singer 
stood  on  the  firing  line. 

These  poems,  and  numberless  others  which  might 
be  gathered  up,  are,  on  the  whole,  as  was  said  at  the 
beginning  of  this  chapter,  poems  of  the  inner  life. 
Thej  are  essentially  studies  of  the  soul.  Being- 
studies  of  the  soul,  they  are  impressively  alike.  They 
are  sung  in  many  meters  and  to  many  tunes.  But 
they  do  serve  to  illustrate  Shelley's  remark  when  he 
speaks  of  "  That  great  poem  which  all  poets,  like  the 
cooperating  thoughts  of  one  great  mind,  have  built 
up  since  the  beginning  of  the  world." 

Seeger,  Brooke,  and  their  fellow  singers,  like 
Keats,  Shelley,  and  Byron,  died  young.  In  few 
years,  and  brief,  they  experienced  much  and  lived 
deeply.  They  had  passion  and  thought  and  reflec- 
tion. Both  of  them  had  vision,  vision  of  the  heart,  as 
well  as  of  the  poetic  imagination. 

What  Brooke  or  Seeger  would  have  produced  had 
they  lived  to  the  age  of  forty,  or  of  fifty,  is  as  vain 
as  to  ask  to  what  heights  Keats  would  have  soared 
had  he  lived  to  twice  his  score  and  six  years.  One 
recalls  that  the  life  of  Tennyson  and  of  Browning  be- 
gan in  or  near  the  first,  and  closed  in  or  near  the  last, 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  One  does  not  for- 
get either  that  Pope,  of  a  wholly  unlike  order,  had  at- 
tained, in  his  three  decades,  a  secure  place  in  Eng- 


178      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

lish  poesy.  But  Brooke  belonged  to  an  order  of  sing- 
ers of  the  inner  life  which  is  as  capable  of  as  endless 
a  development  and  of  as  diverse  attainment  as  are 
the  depths  and  variations  of  the  human  soul.  One 
must  be  content  in  reverently  and  sorrowfully  think- 
ing with  one  greater  than  either  the  young  Ameri- 
can or  the  young  English  singer,  "  For  Lycidas  is 
dead,  dead  ere  his  prime." 

Without  doubt  the  Commemoration  Ode  of  James 
Eussell  Lowell  still  remains  as  the  most  quickening 
of  all  war  poems  written  in  America.  Bold  would 
be  the  prophet  who  should  declare  that  as  great  an 
ode  would  be  inspired  to  commemorate  the  world 
war.  Standing  next  to  it,  though  at  a  distance,  is 
a  sonnet  of  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Lowell,  Wood- 
berry  :  — 

"  I  pray  for  peace ;  yet  peace  is  but  a  prayer. 

How  many  wars  have  been  in  my  brief  years ! 

All  races  and  all  faiths,  both  hemispheres. 
My  eyes  have  seen  embattled  everywhere 
The  wide  earth  through;  yet  do  I  not  despair 

Of  peace,  that  slowly  through  far  ages  nears, 

Though  not  to  me  the  golden  morn  appears; 
My  faith  is  perfect  in  time's  issue  fair. 

For  man  doth  build  on  an  eternal  scale, 

And  his  ideals  are  framed  of  hope  deferred; 

The  millennium  came  not ;  yet  Christ  did  not  fail. 
Though  ever  unaccomplished  is  His  word; 


Poetry  as  an  Interpretation  of  the  JVar      1Y9 

Him  Prince  of  Peace,  though  unenthroned,  we  hail. 
Supreme  when  in  all  bosoms  He  be  heard."  ^ 

The  poet  is  he  who  sees  into  the  inmost  heart  of 
things.  The  history  of  the  war  in  its  realities,  in  its 
dismays,  in  its  despairs  and  distresses,  in  its  heroisms 
and  victories,  in  its  partings  and  sorrows,  in  its 
glories  and  exultations,  will  ever  find  imperishable 
symbols  and  tokens  in  the  poems  of  college  men. 
They  are  a  moving  interpretation  of  the  experiences 
of  the  nations  and  of  all  men. 

"  Across  the  calm,  clear  sky  of  God 
A  great  white  glory  gleams. 
The  young  men  find  the  altar-stairs 
Of  world-rapt  hopes  and  dreams. 
The  Beast  shall  crumble  into  dust, 
The  blood-stained  crown  will  fall 
Before  the  shining  armies 
Of  the  Lord,  the  God  of  All."  2 

1  Sonnets  written  in  the  Fall  of  1914,  by  George  Edward 
Woodberry. 

2  American  Field  Service  Bulletin,  Paris,  May  18,  1918; 
"  Dawn,"  by  Sherman  L,  Conklin, 


XII 


INTEEINATIONAL    RELATIOXS 

As  the  war  was  an  international  war,  so  the  rela- 
tions of  American  colleges  to  other  nations  and  to 
their  educational  forces  became  significant.  These 
relations  assumed  several  forms.  Among  these  forms 
was  a  study  of  the  language  and  literature  of  differ- 
ent peoples  and  especially  of  France,  the  reception  by 
the  colleges  of  academic  commissions  from  these 
countries ;  the  offering  and  the  acceptance  of  hos- 
pitality to  American  teachers  in  foreign  capitols ;  the 
transfer  of  college  education  under  American  condi- 
tions to  the  camps  in  France ;  and  the  entrance  of 
American  student  soldiers  into  British  and  French 
universities.  It  was  a  unique  record  of  diverse  ex- 
periences, of  gracious  courtesies  and  of  forceful  ef- 
ficiency. 

Early  in  the  great  conflict  the  antagonistic  feeling 
of  the  American  college  toward  Germany  became 
manifest.  The  forcefulness  of  the  command  or  the 
wisdom  of  the  counsel  of  the  president  to  maintain 
neutrality  was  not  sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  most 

180 


International  Relations  181 

colleges  from  indicating  their  sympathy  with  the 
cause  of  the  Allies.  The  pro-German  expressions 
were  far  less  numerous  and  less  compelling  than  the 
great  number  of  American  teachers  educated  in  Ber- 
lin, Leipsic  and  Munich  would  have  given  ground 
for  expecting.  As  the  war  advanced,  however,  the 
antagonism  became  more  ardent;  and  at  the  time  of 
America's  entrance,  the  German  cause  found  few 
friends  in  American  institutions  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion. 

The  international  relation  took  on  in  a  striking  de- 
gree the  linguistic  form.  In  a  special  way  it  at  once 
came  to  be  related  to  the  abolition  of  German  as  a 
study  in  the  public  schools  and  colleges.  On  one  side 
the  demand  was  strong  and  insistent  that  all  associa- 
tion with  the  language  and  the  literature  of  a  people 
commonly  believed  to  be  so  inhuman  and  bestial 
should  cease.  This  demand  was  heard  in  such  vig- 
orous paragraphs  as  these: 

"  The  sound  of  the  German  language  or  the  sight  of  a 
printed  page  in  German,  reminds  us  of  the  murder  of  a 
million  helpless  old  men,  unarmed  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren; the  driving  of  about  100,000  young  French,  Belgian 
and  Polish  women  into  compulsory  prostitution  for  Ger- 
many's soldiers ;  .  .  .  the  destruction  of  many  hospital 
and  relief  ships,  and  the  crucifixion  of  Canadian  soldier 
prisoners. 

"  Henceforth  in  all  English  speaking  countries,  the  Ger- 


1S2      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

man  language  will  bo  a  handicap  to  every  person  who  uses 
it.  In  America,  in  England  and  all  British  dependencies, 
the  German  language  now  is  a  dead  language!  All  those 
who  speak  it  or  read  it  will  in  self-defense  conceal  that 
fact.  Never  again  will  it  be  needed  anywhere  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  save  as  a  reference  language.  Ger- 
man *  science '  now  is  just  as  loathsome  as  German  mili- 
tarism.    What  is  more,  it  will  long  remain  so."  ^ 

Under  such  emotional  excitement  many  cities  and 
to^vns  eliminated  German  from  their  course  of  study. 
In  Wisconsin  the  number  of  schools  offering  studies 
in  German  fell  from  two  hundred,  and  eighty-five  to 
forty-eight.  The  colleges,  however,  were  not  moved, 
under  emotional  stress  to  action  so  drastic.  Yet,  the 
colleges  did  find  that  the  students,  taking  the  matter 
into  their  own  hands,  were  cutting  out  German  from 
their  list  of  electives.  Institutions  excused  about 
one-half  of  their  professors  of  German,  having  little 
teaching  for  them  to  give,  and  the  number  of  stu- 
dents of  German  fell  in  some  colleges  to  a  tenth  of 
the  former  enrollment. 

But  councils  saner  and  safer  came  to  prevail  in 
most  colleges  and  universities  in  the  autumn  of  the 
year  in  which  the  armistice  was  signed.  It  was  re- 
membered and  remarked  that  industrial  relations 
would  finally  be  reestablished  with  Germany  and  that 

1 "  Throw  Out  the  German  Language  and  All  Disloyal 
Teachers,"  published  by  American  Defense  Society,  Inc.,  New 
York,  pages  1  and  2. 


International  Relations  183 

a  knowledge  of  the  language  would  aid  in  such  re- 
establishment.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  technical 
and  scientific  writings  of  Genuany  were  valuable. 
It  was  argued  that  the  history  of  Germany  and  its 
philology  shed  light  on  English  history  and  research. 
It  was,  of  course,  declared  that  Goethe  and  Schiller 
are  universal  interpreters.  The  persuasiveness  of 
the  arguments  received  emphasis  from  the  extent  to 
which  German  was  studied  in  the  schools  of  England 
and  of  France.  The  number  of  schools  studying  the 
language  in  England  in  the  year  1918  was  practically 
equivalent  to  the  number  studying  it  in  the  year 
1911.  France  likewise  was  pursuing  a  wiser  policy 
than  was  pursued  in  the  schools  in  certain  American 
states  and  capitols.  The  antagonism  to  everything 
German  that  was  manifested  in  France  in  the  first 
months  of  the  war  had  largely  passed  away  by  the 
year  1916.  The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  un- 
der the  influence  of  normal  popular  opinion  was  able 
to  say  that  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  all  pupils 
enrolled  in  French  schools  were  studying  the  lan- 
guage, which  two  years  before  had  been  tabooed.  It 
was  argued  by  the  Ministerial  Commission  in  a  re- 
port made  to  the  Ministry  of  War,  that  France  should 
not  be  ignorant  of  the  German  language.  Every 
manifestation  of  her  activities  should  be  watched. 
Her  veneet*  of  innocent  goodness  naturally  demanded 


184      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

special  insight  of  the  watchmen.  The  wisest  method 
and  strongest  force  for  securing  such  knowledge  lay 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  German  tongue. 

Yet,  though  the  study  of  the  German  language  was 
declining  in  American  colleges,  as  well  as  the  force  of 
German  arms  in  France,  the  language  of  France  it- 
self was  advancing,  as  well  as  the  French  arms,  in 
the  autimin  of  1918.  If  the  number  of  German  stu- 
dents was  divided  by  four  or  a  larger  figure,  the  num- 
ber of  French  students  was  multiplied  also  by  at 
least  four.  The  teachers  of  the  Romance  languages 
in  seventeen  American  universities  addressed  a  let- 
ter to  other  co-workers  in  the  countiy,  in  which  in 
moving  paragraphs  it  was  said : 

"  The  heart  and  the  mind  of  America  are  turning,  as 
never  before,  to  France.  To  us  the  signs  of  this  new  in- 
terest appear  in  the  increased  enrollments  in  French  re- 
ported by  many  schools  and  colleges.  It  is  for  us  to  guide 
and  develop  this  interest,  to  make  it  intelligent,  to  satisfy 
it,  to  give  it  permanence. 

"  If  we  have  taught  willingly  before,  we  should  teach 
now  with  a  whole-hearted  enthusiasm.  "We  are  the  inter- 
preters of  France  to  America.  Let  us,  in  comment  and  in 
choice  of  books,  select  for  emphasis  just  those  elements 
of  French  life  and  French  thought  that  our  own  country 
most  needs :  resolute  clearness,  keen  analysis,  respect  for 
the  idea,  open-mindedness,  reference  to  universal  stand- 
ards, the  acquisition  of  liberty  through  discipline. 

"  In  our  linguistic  courses  there  is  need  for  the  confirma- 


Iniemational  Relations  185 

tion  and  the  extension  of  new  purposes  and  new  methods. 
Li  years  past  the  main  object  of  our  work,  both  secondary 
and  collegiate,  was  to  enable  the  student  to  understand 
printed  French.  Recently  the  rights  of  spoken  French 
have  received  increasing  recognition.  Xow,  as  a  result  of 
the  war,  those  rights  are  evident.  For  there  is  now,  and 
there  will  be  in  the  time  of  peace,  a  mingling  of  the  two 
peoples,  the  French  and  the  American,  such  as  there  has 
never  been  before.  Of  those  whom  we  teach  many  will 
have  cause  to  go  to  France,  many  will  welcome  Frenchmen 
here.  Our  former  pupils  as  a  whole,  have  not  received 
a  speaking  knowledge  of  French ;  and  those  among  them 
who  are  facing  service  abroad  are  painfully  conscious  of 
the  lack.  The  students  in  our  enlarging  classes  to-day 
want  spoken  French,  and  they  are  entitled  to  have  the 
want  supplied. 

"  In  the  Italian  courses  there  is  need  for  the  same 
change  in  linguistic  plan,  and  for  similar  discrimination 
in  critical  emphasis.  We  may  well  seek  the  broad  vision 
of  life  from  the  mount  of  the  centuries,  the  patience,  the 
delight  in  fine  intellectual  achievement,  the  scrutiny  of 
fundamental  truth,  that  mark  the  compatriots  of  Dante. 
And  the  service  of  the  interpreter  is  even  more  necessary 
in  this  case,  for  Italy,  past  and  present,  is  still  unduly  un- 
familiar to  our  countrjTnen. 

"  The  greatest  immediate  values  of  the  study  of  Spanish 
seem  to  lie  in  the  possibility  of  developing  an  intelligent 
acquaintance  and  a  sound  mutual  respect  between  the 
Spanish-speaking  republics  and  our  own."  ^ 

A  service  cooperative  between  French  homes  and 

1  Circular  Note  "  To  Teachers  of  the  Romance  Languages  in 
ihe  United  States  of  America."     Page  1. 


186      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

schools  and  American  institutions  was  found  in  a 
delegation  of  French  girls  assigned  to  American  col- 
leges. Through  the  Association  of  American  Col- 
leges, it  was  arranged  for  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  French  girls  to  become  American  students.  In 
advance  of  their  departing  from  their  own  shores, 
they  had  accepted  a  grant  of  free  scholarships, —  in- 
struction, board  and  rooms, —  in  some  seventy-five 
institutions.  Of  this  method  of  international  coop- 
eration, Professor  Cestre,  Exchange  Professor  in 
Harvard  University,  has  said : 

"  Nothing  can  touch  the  heart  of  the  French  nation  more 
deeply  than  the  steps  taken  by  the  Association  of  Ameri- 
can Colleges  to  open  scholarships  in  American  Girls'  Col- 
leges to  one  hundred  French  women  students.  There  is 
such  warm-heartedness  in  the  offer  that  the  French  will 
see  in  it  one  of  the  readiest  and  most  significant  proofs 
of  America's  friendship  toward  France.  Such  sanguine 
response  of  a  whole  country's  feeling  to  the  behavior  of 
another  country  was  never  recorded  in  history.  Indeed, 
there  is  something  changed  in  the  world  when  for  the  old- 
time  indifference  or  aloofness  between  nations  one  sees 
substituted  such  enthusiastic  loving-kindness  as  thus  man- 
ifested by  America  toward  France.  A  firm  and  durable 
basis  for  international  amity  and  peace  is  definitely 
planted  when  so  noble  expressions  of  idealistic  admira- 
tion and  so  liberal  movement  of  collective  generosity  are 
possible.  I  say  it  emphatically  in  the  name  of  my  coun- 
trymen :  as  the  men  of  France  were  rewarded  for  their 
sacrifice  when  President  Wilson  declared  that  the  restora- 


International  Relations  187 

tion  of  Alsace-Lorraine  to  France  was  a  question  of  right 
in  which  the  whole  world  was  interested,  so  the  women  of 
France  are  repaid  for  their  unflinching  devotion  and 
steadfastness  under  the  greatest  strain  in  the  history  of 
nations  by  this  moving  and  chivalrous  purpose  of  America. 
"  Some  of  these  French  girls  will  be  led  by  their  altered 
circumstances,  or  tempted  by  the  hold  this  American  life 
will  lay  on  them,  or  induced  by  the  appeal  of  apostleship, 
to  stay  in  this  country  as  teachers  of  French  in  schools 
and  colleges.  They  will  be  the  permanent,  living  wit- 
nesses of  the  shameful  treatment  inflicted  by  Germany 
on  her  neighbors,  and  also  the  token-bearers  and  the 
thanks-givers  testifying  to  the  generous  friendship  of 
America  and  to  the  undying  gratefulness  of  France. 
They  will  supply,  to  some  extent,  the  need  of  good  French 
teachers  in  this  country  after  the  war,  preventing  (let  us 
devoutly  hope)  the  greatest  evil  which  might  befall  Amer- 
ican education,  namely,  that  the  teaching  of  French,  out 
of  misplaced,  good-natured  slackness,  should  be  passed 
over  to  the  Germans,  male  or  female,  turned  idle  by  the 
discrediting  of  German  classics  by  American  children. 
How  many  of  such  German  teachers  know  French?  And 
in  what  spirit  would  they  interpret  la  douce  France,  even 
if  they  sincerely  tried  to  do  justice  to  her  humane  civiliza- 
tion and  gentle  sociability?" 

It  should  be  added  that  the  high  hopes  thus  enter- 
tained have  been  realized  by  the  presence  of  these 
young  women  in  American  colleges.  They  have 
fitted  well  into  the  social  and  academic  life.  If  they 
have  received  much,  they  have  also  given  much. 
Their  presence  has  brought  a  foreign  world  near  to 
the  isolated  American  student.     This  international 


188      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

transmigration  is  one  of  the  happiest  of  the  minor  ele- 
ments in  current  international  scholastic  history. 
The  first  delegation  was  followed  by  a  second  and 
smaller  one,  and  with  equally  satisfactory  results. 

The  international  relations  took  on  also  the  recep- 
tion of  educational  commissions  from  Great  Britain 
and  from  France.  The  most  important  of  these 
commissions  was  the  British  University  Mission 
which  visited  American  colleges  in  the  autumn  of 
1918.  Its  members  represented  the  older  universi- 
ties, the  newer  universities  of  the  Midlands  and  the 
University  of  London.  The  Chairman  was  Doctor 
Arthur  E.  Shipley,  Master  of  Christ's  College  and 
Vice-Chancellor  of  Cambridge  University.  He  wrote 
soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  service :  — 

"  For  more  than  sixty  days  we  went  up  and  down 
this  vast  country,  traveling  many  thousands  of  miles 
and  seeing  so  many  universities  and  colleges  and  so 
many  presidents  and  professors  that  those  amongst  us 
who  had  not  hitherto  had  the  privilege  of  visiting  the 
United  States  formed  the  idea  that  all  its  cities  are 
university  cities  and  that  all  the  inhabitants  are  pro- 
fessors, an  idea  very  awful  to  contemplate !  "  ^ 

The   results    directly   flowing   from  the  presence 

1  "  The  Voyage  of  a  Viee-Chancellor,"  by  Arthur  E.  Shipley, 
Master  of  Christ's  College  and  Vice-Chancellor  of  Cambridge 
University,  England,  in  Scribner's,  March,   1919,  page  307. 


International  Relations  189 

of  this  Mission  were,  if  not  of  commanding  im- 
portance, at  least  informing  and  inspiring.  It  was 
proved  that  there  exists  a  certain  fundamental  fellow- 
ship between  British  and  American  universities. 
Friendliness  and  cooperation  were  constant  keynotes. 
Through  the  addresses  of  the  members  of  the  Mis- 
sion and  many  personal  conferences,  hundreds  of 
students  were  informed  of  the  opportunities  for 
graduate  study  found  in  England,  and  be  it  said  the 
members  of  the  Mission  became  acquainted  with  the 
activities  of  the  higher  education  in  the  new  world. 

The  impression  made  by  the  Mission  on  Amer- 
ican thought  and  feeling,  in  the  opinion  of  American 
educators,  was  of  the  highest  value.  Doctor  Capen, 
of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  said : 

"  A  result,  which  ought  to  be  of  great  benefit  to 
American  education,  is  the  presentation  of  the  view 
that  intellectual  achievement  cannot  properly  be 
measured  by  mechanical  devices."  ^ 

Professor  Kirsopp  Lake  (Lincoln,  '91)  now  of 
Harvard  LTniyersity  wrote,  in  a  similar  spirit: 
"  Will  the  powers  that  be  at  Oxford  remember  with 
sufficient  vividness  that  in  education,  as  in  other 
things,  machinery  is  less  important  than  the  object  for 
which  it  is  designed  ?  "  ^ 

1  The  American  Oxonian,  January,  1919,  page  2. 

2  Ibid.,  page  4. 


100      Colleges  and  l' n i versities  in  the  Great  War 

Professor  Schelling,  of  the  Universitj  of  Penn- 
sylvania, affirmed :  "  The  war  must  bring  many 
changes,  to  our  universities  as  elsewhere.  If  among 
many  other  things,  it  shall  bring  us  into  closer  bonds 
of  educational  and  intellectual  union  with  those  who 
speak  our  tongue,  are  ruled  by  laws  descended  from 
the  same  laws  which  govern  us,  vitalized  by  the  same 
love  of  liberty  and  of  free  institutions  which  sustain 
us,  we  can  assuredly  count  these  things  as  momentous 
gains."  ^ 

The  Chairman  of  the  Mission,  Vice-Chancellor 
Shipley,  later  said :  "  The  American  people  are  de- 
termined to  have  education,  and  from  experience  of 
thirty-two  years  of  America  I  have  come  to  the  con- 
clusion that  Americans  generally  get  what  they  set 
out  for.  What  they  mean  by  education  is  not  in  all 
cases  clear  to  themselves.  They  are  apt  to  be  a  little 
uncritical  and  apt  to  be  a  little  influenced  by  long 
and  uncommon  words.  From  Massachusetts  to 
Texas  and  from  Minneapolis  to  Charlottesville  we 
have  found  the  same  high  hopes  of  the  power  of  edu- 
cation in  developing  the  best  qualities  of  the  young. 

"  However,  the  instructions  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment to  us  were  to  do  what  we  could  to  bring  the  two 
Anglo-Saxon  nations  together,  and  the  most  effec- 
tive way  of  doing  this  seems  to  be  by  means  of  the 

ilbid.,  page  10. 


International  Relations  191 

young.     We  hope  to  exchange  both  persons  and  ideas. 

"(1)  With  regard  to  the  persons,  we  hope  that  a 
certain  number  of  students  will  come  from  Great 
Britain  to  the  United  States,  just  as  a  limited  num- 
ber of  American  students  now  come  to  Great  Britain 
under  the  Rhodes  Trustees.  With  regard  to  stu- 
dents, and  here  I  may  speak  for  myself,  I  think  that 
we  should  not  exchange  students  with  rare  exceptions, 
until  they  have  graduated.  It  is  the  young  A.  B.  in 
my  opinion  who  would  most  benefit  by  visiting  an- 
other country,  and  I  think  it  is  unfortunate  to  take  a 
man  away  from  his  own  university  until  he  has  com- 
pleted his  course.  (2)  I  would  emphasize  the  fact 
here  that  man  includes  woman.  (3)  I  think  the 
students  should  be  selected  not  by  a  competitive  ex- 
amination but  by  some  such  board  as  used  to  select 
the  King  Edward  VII  German  scholars  and  whicli 
now  selects  the  members  of  the  Egyptian  and  Sou- 
danese Government  service.  (4)  The  student  when 
selected  should  have  absolute  liberty  of  choice  as  to 
the  university  or  professor  he  wishes  to  study  at  or 
under.  He  should  not  be  confined,  as  is  the  case 
with  Rhodes  Scholars,  to  one  university."  ^ 

The  members  of  the  Mission  and  the  professors 
and  presidents  in  American  colleges  agreed  in  the 
primary  element  tliat  the  exchange  of  students  and 
1  Ibid.,  pages  22-23. 


102      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

of  teachers,  between  the  universities  of  the  two 
branches  of  the  English-speaking  race,  should  be 
heartily  promoted.  For  this  purpose,  all  wise  and 
proper  machinery  should  be  set  up. 

Aside  from  the  personalities  of  this  Mission 
and  of  other  commissions,  messages  of  various  sorts 
were  frequently  exchanged  between  the  universities 
of  the  Xew  and  of  the  Old  World  which  are  illustra- 
tive of  a  most  important  increase  of  fellowship. 
The  Rector  of  the  University  of  Athens,  for  instance, 
addressed  the  universities  of  America  with  reference 
to  the  damages  wrought  by  the  Bulgarians  in  Eastern 
Macedonia.     He  wrote: 

"  Incendiarism,  slavery,  wholesale  deportations,  tor- 
ments and  excesses  of  all  sorts,  these  are  the  means  used  by 
the  Bulgar  —  in  order  to  exterminate  Hellenism,  a  be- 
havior worthy  of  hordes,  such  as  appeared  in  the  darkest 
times  of  history." 

The  students,  too,  of  the  colleges  of  the  Yugo-Slavs, 
addressed  a  letter  to  their  fellow  students  in  the 
United  States,  in  which  they  said : — 

"  All  the  Yugo-Slavs  are  convinced  that  the  deadly 
struggle  in  which  they  are  engaged  in  conjunction  with 
their  grand  Allies  will  result  in  a  just  and  lasting  peace, 
and  bring  them  to  that  which  they  are  justly  entitled, 
viz :  —  the  unity  and  independence  of  their  nation. 

"  The  Yugo-Slavs  are  proud  to  number  among  their  Al- 


International  Relations  193 

lies  the  great  American  democracy,  and  we,  representing 
the  Yugo-Slav  students,  as  well  as  those  fighting  in  the 
Servian  Army  as  those  who  are  enrolled  against  their  will 
in  the  armies  of  the  enemy  or  who  are  languishing  in  Ger- 
man or  Hungarian  prisons,  address  to  you,  dear  fellow 
students,  our  cordial  and  affectionate  greetings."  ^ 

It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  the  nefarious  letter 
addressed  by  the  ninety-three  professors  in  the  Ger- 
man universities  to  their  colleagues  of  other  na- 
tions, in  the  first  months  of  the  war,  awoke  the  sever- 
est condemnation  in  American  college  halls.  The 
lack  of  logic  in  this  communication  made  a  deep 
impression  upon  both  the  reason  and  the  heart  of 
American  teachers.  The  presumptuousness  indi- 
cated in  the  simple  declarations  of  the  infamous  doc- 
ument seemed  to  be  one  of  the  surest  evidences  of 
the  subordination  of  the  professorial  to  the  military 
authorities.  It  was  one  of  the  hardest  blows  ever 
inflicted  upon  the  belief  current  among  American 
teachers,  that  the  German  university  system  stood 
for  freedom  of  teaching.  As  President  Butler  of 
Columbia  University  said :  "  That  appeal  was  an 
unmixed  mass  of  untiniths,  and  the  stain  which  it 
placed  upon  the  intellectual  and  moral  integrity  of 
German  scholars  and  men  of  science  will  forever  re- 

1  Letter  from  Central  Committee  of  the  Federated  Societies 
of  Servian,  Croatian  and  Slovene  (Yugo-Slav)  college  students 
in  Switzerland. 


194      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

main  one  of  the  most  deplorable  and  discouraging 
events  of  the  war  which  German  militarism  and 
Prussian  autocracy  forced  upon  the  peaceful  and  lib- 
erty-loving nations  of  the  world."  ^ 

This  letter,  after  a  year  following  the  declaration 
of  the  armistice,  was  made  the  subject  of  a  half -apol- 
ogetic note  by  several  of  its  signers.  It  was  con- 
fessed that  pressure  was  exerted  by  the  German  gov- 
ernment to  secure  its  issue  and  that  professors  were 
urged  by  their  colleagues  to  append  their  names. 
Both  despite  and  because  of  these  confessions,  it  still 
remains  one  of  the  dark  and  sinister  blots  on  the  Ger- 
man university  system. 

But  this  species  of  unreasonable  and  impetuous 
propaganda  was  only  a  microcosm  of  the  principles 
and  methods  which  German  universities  and  profes- 
sors had  been  following  for  more  than  forty  years. 
In  the  preaching  and  teaching  of  the  older  academic 
and  imperial  gospel,  gi'eat  professors  like  Mommsen, 
Droyser,  Sybel  and  Treitschke  were  far-resounding 
voices  and  potent  personalities.  They  helped  to 
make  history  as  well  as  to  write  it.  They  worked 
both  with  the  chancellories  and  with  the  general  staff. 
They  were  apologists  for  the  Ems  dispatch.  Pro- 
fessor Delbruck  pronounced  on  that  dispatch  a  benedic- 

1  Letter  addressed  to  the  rector  of  the  University  of  Up- 
sala  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  president  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, April  15,  1919,  page  3. 


International  Relations  195 

tion  — "  Blessed  be  the  hand  that  traced  those  lines." 
They  represented  the  height  and  depth  of  Chauvin- 
ism. From  his  chair  in  the  University  of  Berlin 
Treitschke  spoke  not  only  to  the  thousands  of  vigor- 
ous, virile  and  volatile  students,  but  also  through 
them  to  the  whole  German  people.  He  was  an  apt 
pupil  of  the  great  Frederick's  teaching.  A  world 
dominion  won  by  military  power  was  the  compre- 
hensive and  consummate  text.  Such  was  the  foreign 
and  home  Gospel  which  was  designed  to  unite  and  to 
Prussianize  all  Germany.  The  voice  was  indeed  the 
voice  of  Treitschke,  but  the  Gospel  was  the  Gospel  of 
Frederick  the  Great.  The  state  was  the  real  com- 
mander and  personality.  That  the  end  justifies  the 
means,  that  the  stronger  should  triumph  over  the 
weak,  that  the  small  nations  should  yield  to  the  large, 
that  material  force,  and  not  conscience,  rules  and 
should  rule  mankind :  —  these  were  among  the  beati- 
tudes of  the  academic  gospel.  The  state  first  made 
the  university  and  then  the  university  helped  to 
make  the  state, —  the  state  universal,  omnipotent, 
omnipresent. 

Among  the  unique  and  the  more  important  of  in- 
ternational relations  was  that  foundation  which  be- 
came known  as  the  American  University  Union. 
Established  in  Paris  in  the  midsummer  of  1017,  it 
had  for  its  purpose,  "  To  meet  the  needs  of  American 


100      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

university  and  college  men  and  their  friends  who 
were  in  Europe  for  military  or  other  service  in  the 
cause  of  the  Allies."     Its  more  specific  purpose  was: 

"1.  To  provide  at  moderate  cost  a  home  with  the 
privilege  of  a  simple  club  for  American  college  men 
and  their  friends  passing  through  Paris  or  on  fur- 
lough :  the  privilege  to  include  information  bureau, 
writing  and  newspaper  room,  library,  dining-room, 
bed-rooms,  baths,  social  features,  opportunites  for 
physical  recreation,  entertainments,  medical  advice, 
etc. 

"  2.  To  provide  a  headquarters  for  the  various 
bureaus  already  established  or  to  be  established  in 
France  by  representative  American  universities,  col- 
leges and  technical  schools. 

"  3.  To  cooperate  with  these  bureaus  when  estab- 
lished, and  in  their  absence  to  aid  institutions,  pa- 
rents, or  friends,  in  securing  information  about  col- 
lege men  in  all  forms  of  war  service,  reporting  on 
casualties,  visiting  the  sick  and  wounded,  giving  ad- 
vice, serving  as  a  means  of  communication  with  them, 
etc." 

About  one  hundred  and  fifty  American  colleges 
were  formally  enrolled;  and  no  less  than  thirty- 
five  thousand  men  registered  at  its  offices.'  Its  head- 
quarters was  established  in  the  Royal  Palace  Hotel. 
Branches  were  afterwards  opened  in  London  and  in 


International  Relaticms  197 

Rome.  The  Union  proved  to  be  not  only  a  social 
club,  but  also  an  organization  for  war  relief.  It 
served  as  an  important  bond  of  union  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Allies.  Its  usefulness  did 
not  cease  with  the  ending  of  hostilities.  It  is  still, 
under  somewhat  changed  conditions,  serving  the  col- 
lege men  of  the  United  States  residing  abroad. 

Of  the  international  academic  activities  and  rela- 
tions of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  the 
American  University  in  France  was  perhaps  the 
first  in  importance  as  it  was  the  last  in  time.  This 
educational  service  was  at  its  beginning  under  the 
charge  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
It  had  for  its  special  executives,  Professor  John  Er- 
skine  of  Columbia  University,  Dr.  Frank  E.  Spauld- 
ing,  Superintendent  of  the  Cleveland  public  schools, 
and  Dr.  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield,  President  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  College.  It  was  a  foundation 
designed  to  give  a  higher  education  to  American  sol- 
diers, serving  in  France  who  had  been  made  free 
from  certain  military  duties.  It  was  placed  in 
Beaune,  Cote  d'Or.  One  reason  for  the  choice  of 
this  location  lay  in  the  fact  that  hospital  buildings, 
already  erected,  were  unoccupied,  and  were  sufficient 
to  serve  some  eight  thousand  students  and  teachers. 
The  University  was  administered  by  military  au- 
thority. Colonel  Ira  L.  Reeves,  formerly  President 


198      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Oreat  War 

of  Xorwieh  Universitv,  Vermont,  being  made  presi- 
dent. 

The  University  was  composed  of  as  many  and  as 
different  departments  as  a  College  of  Agriculture,  a 
College  of  Arts,  a  College  of  Business,  a  College  of 
Education,  a  College  of  Engineering,  a  College  of 
Journalism,  a  College  of  Law,  a  College  of  Letters, 
a  College  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  a  College  of  Music, 
a  College  of  Science,  an  Art  Training  Center  at  Bel- 
levue,  the  Farm  School  of  Allerey,  and  the  Division 
and  Post  Schools  at  Beaune. 

The  teachers,  numbering  about  one  thousand,  were 
drawn  from  the  army  and  from  the  list  of  civilians, 
and  were  usually  graduates  of  American  schools  and 
universities.  The  courses  of  instruction  offered  were 
those  usually  found  in  American  academic  curricula. 

The  students  were  likewise  of  diverse  origins. 
They  represented  the  usual  scholastic  training  re- 
quired for  admission  to  the  Freshman  year  of  the  or- 
dinary college.  Not  a  few  of  them  had  already  been 
college  students.  They  numbered  about  ten  thou- 
sand, and  the  number  credited  to  each  state  ran  from 
seven  —  who  claimed  Nevada  as  their  place  of  resi- 
dence —  to  seven  hundred  seventy-one  —  who  came 
from  Pennsylvania.  Seven  hundred  sixty-six  were 
from  the  state  of  New  York,  and  seven  hundred  and 
twelve  from  Illinois.     The  State  of  Ohio  contributed 


International  Relations  199 

four  hundred  eighty  men,  Texas  four  hundred  fifty- 
two,  Michigan  three  hundred  fifty-nine,  Minnesota 
three  hundred  forty-nine,  Indiana  three  hundred  sev- 
enty-seven, every  state  in  the  Union  being  represented. 

The  Farm  School  at  Allerey  proved  to  be  the  most 
attractive,  in  which  twenty-three  hundred  were  en- 
rolled, although  in  the  more  formal  School  of  Agri- 
culture, about  seven  hundred  were  registered.  Fol- 
lowing closely  the  Farm  School  was  the  College  of 
Business,  in  which  a  number  slightly  below  two 
thousand  were  matriculated.  The  College  of  Let- 
ters registered  about  a  thousand,  the  College  of  Sci- 
ences, six  hundred  forty,  the  College  of  Engineering, 
six  hundred  sixteen,  the  College  of  Law,  one  hundred 
fifty-nine,  and  the  College  of  Journalism,  one  hun- 
dred thirty-eight. 

Dr.  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield,  an  Educational  Di- 
rector, has  written,  regarding  the  worth  of  this 
service : — 

"  I  am  satisfied  that  its  work  was  of  very  great 
value  indeed.  It  had  to  be  built  hurriedly;  it  had 
to  utilize  material  at  hand ;  it  had  to  adapt  itself  to 
unusual  and  changing  conditions  —  but  it  '  worked.' 
Men  were  reached  intellectually  and  spiritually. 
Technical  information,  knowledge  of  foreign  condi- 
tions and  languages,  and  great  incentives  were  flower 
and  fruit  of  the  educational  effort.     It  was  all  very 


200      Colleges  and   Universities  in  the  Great  War 

much  worth  while,  and  particularly  because  it  was 
being  done  for  American  young  men.  It  was  a  joy 
to  work  with  them,  to  see  them  at  close  range,  to  real- 
ize their  capacity  for  leadership."  ^ 

Significant  details  of  the  work  of  American  stu- 
dents at  Beaune  and  in  the  universities  of  France 
have  been  given  me  by  another  member  of  the  Edu- 
cational Commission,  Dr.  Frank  E.  Spaulding.  He 
has  said : — 

".  .  .  I  think  the  most  significant  and  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  result  of  this  work  in  the  French 
universities  will  be  found  not  in  what  was  actually 
learned  in  the  classroom,  not  in  the  results  which  we 
look  for  in  the  classroom,  although  they  were  indeed 
very  considerable  and  significant,  but  the  most  val- 
uable result  will  indeed  be  found  in  the  association 
of  these  intelligent,  educated,  chosen,  selected  young 
men,  with  the  French  students  and  with  the  people  of 
the  French  communities  where  these  universities 
were  located.  Without  exception,  the  citizens  of 
these  French  university  towns  gave  great  thought  and 
constant  care  to  make  the  life  of  our  American  stu- 
dents pleasant  and  agreeable  and  profitable.  .  .  . 

"  As  was  to  be  expected,  the  American  students  de- 
veloped very  quickly  many  of  the  characteristic  ac- 

'i^  School  Life  (Department  of  the  Interior),  September  Ist, 
1919. 


Intemaiional  Relations  201 

tivities  of  the  American  university  and  college.  I 
think  that,  withont  exception,  every  group  of  Amer- 
ican students  at  once  began  to  issue  some  kind  of  col- 
lege paper.  In  two  or  three  instances,  at  least,  they 
entered  into  an  arrangement  with  some  local  paper 
whereby  they  published  one  edition  a  week  at  least, 
in  cooperation  with  the  local  authorities.  For  in- 
stance, the  first  paper  of  that  kind  that  I  recall  see- 
ing was  published  at  the  University  of  Montpelier. 
In  fact  most  of  the  four-page  sheet  was  American  — 
one  side  entirely,  which  was  the  front  page  —  the  re- 
verse was  French,  also  a  front  page.  There  was  a 
similar  publication  at  Dijon.  I  presume  there  may 
have  been  others,  with  the  characteristic  types  of 
American  journalism,  including  advertising  and 
everything  else.  Such  things  as  that  entered  into  the 
spirit  in  which  they  did  anything.  It  was,  I  think, 
of  great  value  and  made  a  lasting  impression  both  on 
the  American  students  and  the  French  people  con- 
cerned. There  was  also  a  system  of  personal  ex- 
changes among  these  men.  Each  American  student 
was  yoked  up  with  some  French  student  for  the  sake 
of  the  language,  and  intimate  intercourse  and  asso- 
ciation." 

American  soldier  students,  moreover,  to  the  num- 
ber of  more  than  two  thousand,  were  also  enrolled  in 
the  universities  of  England,   Scotland,   Wales   and 


^02      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Ireland.  They  came  from  each  of  the  states,  Penn- 
sylvania furnishing  the  largest  number,  one  hundred 
seventy-six ;  ISTew  York,  one  himdred  fifty-nine ;  Illi- 
nois, one  hundred  twenty-six;  and  Ohio,  one  hun- 
dred twenty-four.  In  more  than  three  hundred 
American  colleges,  these  men  had  previously  been 
enrolled.  Though  they  were  scattered  in  a  dozen 
different  universities,  the  Student  Detachment  main- 
tained a  good  degi-ee  of  unified  academic  life.  In- 
ter-university visits,  correspondence,  and,  in  partic- 
ular, a  journal,  "  The  American  Soldier  Student," 
served  to  join  together  these  men  in  a  foreign  land. 
The  paper,  quite  similar  to  the  weekly  paper  pub- 
lished in  hundreds  of  American  colleges,  in  its  num- 
ber of  June  25th,  1918,  summed  up  the  impressions, 
of  three  or  more  months,  of  British  education : — 

"  ]^o  academic  world,"  it  is  stated,  "  ever  flung 
open  its  doors  with  greater  hospitality  than  did  this 
island  one.  .  .  .  The  great  outstanding  fact  is  that, 
in  spite  of  the  effects  of  the  war  upon  faculty  and 
fabric,  the  British  institutions  absorbed  over  two 
thousand  American  students  as  well  as  great  numbers 
of  Colonials  in  the  third  term  of  the  academic  year, 
and  did  it  in  a  manner  that  will  make  it  stand 
long  as  a  high-water  mark  of  academic  hospitality. 
.  .  .  But  we  did  not  confine  our  studies  to  books, 
or  our  steps  to  the  limits  of  our  college.     Even  before 


International  Relations  203 

we  had  time  to  explore  our  college  towTi  we  were 
sought  out  by  friends  of  the  Entente,  and  civilian 
hospitality  vied  with  the  academic.  ...  To  a  greater 
or  less  extent  all  of  us  availed  ourselves  of  the  count- 
less opportunities  afforded  to  enter  into  the  life  of 
our  respective  communities.  We  were  not  put  off 
with  one  or  two  large  formal  affairs,  we  were  taken 
into  the  home,  and  we  were  made  to  feel  at  home. 
Soon  we  began  to  go  further  afield.  We  made  the 
whole  kingdom  our  campus.  We  were  scattered 
from  Cambridge  to  Galway,  and  Bristol  to  Aberdeen ; 
in  England,  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland.  Most  all 
of  us  visited  the  other  fellow's  diggings,  and  took  in 
every  place  of  interest  on  the  way.  Never  perhaps 
in  the  history  of  the  world  has  a  body  of  students 
traveled  so  much  in  a  limited  period  of  time  as  we 
did.  We  made  the  so-called  '  wandering  students ' 
of  the  Middle  Ages  look  like  hermits.  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  Loch  Lomond,  the  Wye  Valley,  Blarney,  and 
the  Lakes  of  Killarney ;  is  there  any  one  who  has  not 
visited  most  if  not  all  of  those  ?  And  these  are  only 
the  beginning  of  a  long  list  which  takes  us  to  every 
comer  of  the  two  main  islands  and  to  some  of  the 
smaller  ones.  We  were  to  be  found  in  the  tin,  coal, 
and  iron  mines  in  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  the  Mid- 
lands; in  the  great  textile,  and  iron  and  steel  indus- 
tries of  Manchester,  Sheffield,  Leeds,  and  Binning- 


'204:      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

ham;  iu  the  shipyards  on  the  Clyde;  at  the  stock 
farms  in  Scothmd,  and  on  Jersey  and  Guernsey, — 
but  the  list  is  endless.  We  met  all  kinds  of  people, 
rich  and  poor,  educated  and  uneducated,  and  every- 
where we  were  welcomed  with  a  warmth  such  as  we 
would  give  our  own.  Most  of  us  have  told  one  an- 
other that  we  have  learned  a  lot  and  unlearned  a  lot 
more  about  the  British.  We  have  learned  that  they 
and  we  have  fundamentally  the  same  outlook  on  life, 
the  same  aims  and  the  same  ideals.  Altogether  we 
found  them  much  more  like  ourselves  than  we  had 
thought.  This  suggests  a  way  in  which  we  can  do  a 
little  to  show  our  appreciation  of  a  hospitality  that 
we  cannot  repay.  Now  that  we  have  had  our  earlier 
impressions  of  the  British  modified  and  rectified,  let 
every  one  of  us  see  to  it  that  those  with  whom  we 
come  in  contact  at  home  benefit  by  our  experiences 
here." 

The  final  word  was  a  word  of  duty  and  of  quicken- 
ing for  themselves  returning  to  their  homes  and  their 
colleges. 

"  Returning  to  our  homes  in  all  corners  of  the 
Union,  we  can  be  a  power  in  the  realm  of  Anglo- 
American  relationships  if  we  help  our  neighbors  to 
see  and  understand  the  British  people  as  we  do  now. 
If  we  do  this,  the  interesting  educational  experiment 
we  are  now  completing  will  have  proved  to  be  a  sue- 


Intematioruil  Relations  205 

cess,  even  if  not  a  single  one  of  us  ever  '  cracked  a 
book.'  "  1 

Apparently  the  impression  which  was  made  by  the 
American  students  at  Oxford  was  in  turn  pleasant 
and  grateful.  They  entered  with  earnestness  into  all 
sides  of  the  Oxford  life,  teaching,  athletic,  personal. 
They  seemed  rather  more  eager  to  know  the  teachers 
than  to  know  the  subjects  taught.  The  courses  they 
took  represented  variety  rather  than  consistency,  and 
these  courses  were  determined  largely  by  the  interest 
which  the  lecturer,  or  teacher,  himself  awakened. 
Oxford  idling  —  be  it  ever  so  profitable  —  appar- 
ently had  less  attractiveness  for  them  than  it  has 
for  the  regular  Oxford  man.  Out  of  the  condition, 
every  student  apparently,  by  his  own  confession,  re- 
ceived a  good  deal  of  intellectual  quickening.  This 
quickening  was  in  no  small  part  colored  by  a  personal 
relationship,  a  relationship  which,  by  the  testimony 
of  Oxford  dons,  was  pleasant  to  them  also. 

In  numbers  of  slight,  but  in  significance,  of  great, 
value  is  a  fact  connected  with  the  American  Ilhodes 
Scholars  of  Oxford.  Since  the  inauguration  of  this 
symbol  of  English  speaking  fellowship  in  1!)0  1  four 
hundred  men  have  gone  from  the  American  states 
and  colleges  to  Oxford.     Of  this  number  about  three 

1  The  American  fitudent  Soldier,  No.  7,  June  25,  1911). 
Published  in  London  by  the  Student  Detachment  of  the  U.  S. 
Army  in  Great  Britain. 


206      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

hundred  were  enrolled  in  the  service,  and  twelve  of 
this  number  died. 

In  the  international  relationships  of  the  American 
college,  it  is  never  to  be  forgotten  that,  after  all,  schol- 
arship is  one  of  the  comprehensive  and  enduring 
bonds  of  internationalism.  An  American  teacher, 
Professor  William  Henry  Ilulme  of  Western  Reserve 
University  in  an  address,  given  to  the  Modem  Lan- 
guage Association  of  America,  in  the  year  1916 
said: 

"  In  a  practical  way,  scholarship  has  performed 
wonders  in  the  matter  of  drawing  nations  closer  to- 
gether during  the  last  one  hundred  years.  The 
studies  of  history,  philology,  philosophy  and  science 
have  in  that  time  all  ceased  to  be  national  —  have 
become  international.  How  much  have  history  and 
philology  done,  working  along  ethnical,  anthropologi- 
cal lines,  to  familiarize  people  everywhere  with  the 
close  kinship  of  nations  in  language,  laws,  political 
and  social  institutions,  as  well  as  in  racial  qualities, 
character,  and  temperament !  And  the  sciences  of 
biology  and  geology  have  revealed  the  marvelous 
unity  and  harmony  that  exists  among  all  the  crea- 
tures and  objects  of  animate  and  inanimate  nature. 
The  names  of  many  of  the  famous  scholars  of  the  past 
have  become  in  the  international  sense  household 
words.     The  Grimm  brothers  not  only  created  the 


International  Relations  207 

science  of  comparative  grammar,  but  they  opened  a 
great  new  world  of  folk-lore  and  fable,  in  which  mil- 
lions and  millions  of  children  from  every  part  of  the 
story-loving  universe  have  dreamed  and  reveled  for 
almost  a  century  and  will  continue  to  do  so  to  the 
end  of  time.  The  study  of  ancient  and  mediasval 
mythology  from  the  comparative  point  of  view  has 
under  the  guidance  of  such  scholars  as  Miillendorf, 
Meyer,  and  Bugge  laid  students  in  every  part  of  the 
world  under  the  greatest  obligations.  The  debt  of 
the  world  to  the  epoch-making  discoveries  in  the  field 
of  science  which  Charles  Darwin  made  and  described 
is  incalculable.  The  names  and  fame  of  those  inspir- 
ing teachers  and  eminent  scholars,  Paul  Meyer  and 
Gaston  Paris,  have  reached  and  helped  students  of 
mediaeval  literature  in  every  corner  of  the  globe."  ^ 

The  personal  international  relation, —  and  after  all 
the  personal  is  more  important  than  the  literary, —  is 
well  intimated  in  a  tribute  paid  to  the  oldest  Ameri- 
can college  by  a  patient  in  the  22nd  General  Hos- 
pital of  France.  The  oldest  American  college  pro- 
vided supplies  to  the  sisters  and  doctors  of  that  hos- 
pital. 

1  The  chairman's  address  delivered  December  27,  1916,  at 
Chicago,  Illinois,  at  the  twenty-second  annual  meeting  of  the 
Central  Division  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  Amer- 
ica, by  William  Henry  Hulme  —  entitled  "Scholarship  as  a 
Bond  of  International  Union,"  pages  xciv  and  xcv. 


208      Colleges  and  rnivcrsities  in  the  Great  War 

A  kindly  word, 

A  gentle  touch, 
Little  things 

That  mean  so  much. 

Laughter,  bright 

As  cheery  lays, 
Chasing  gloom 

On  dreary  days. 

A  pleasant  smile 

As  she  goes  by, 
Can  you  really 

Wonder  why? 

The  boys  all  love 

The  Sisters,  who 
So  help  a  fellow 

When  he  feels  "blue." 

Buck  him  up 

In  spite  of  pain. 
Make  him  feel 

A  man  again. 

Harvard !     'Twas 

A  splendid  deed 
When  you  supplied 

A  vital  need. 

And  sent  us  aid 

To  "  carry  on," 
Promising  more 

Till  wars  are  won. 


International  Relations  209 

A  noble  work 

For  a  worthy  end, 
England  thanks  you, 

Harvard  —  Friend.^ 

lA  Noble  Work  by  Gilbert  Ridge  —  Harvard  Alumni  Bul- 
letin, 1918,  page  247. 


XIII 


THE    FALLEN 


On  that  last  great  day  of  the  war,  the  day  of  the 
celebration  of  victory  in  Paris,  the  14th  of  July, 
1919,  which  was  also  Bastille  Day,  a  large,  deep  cas- 
ket was  placed  beneath  the  Arch  of  Triumph.  It 
was  in  commemoration  of  the  fallen.  On  the  surface 
was  an  austere  figure  of  winged  Victory  bearing  a 
palm  branch.  By  day  and  by  night  a  noble  guard 
of  honor  watched  the  memorial.  Past  its  side  there 
filed  for  hours  out  of  the  great  line  of  march,  a 
procession  of  those  families  who  had  lost  a  member. 
These  mourners  clothed  in  black  might  possibly  have 
seemed  to  see  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  casket,  the 
face  of  husband,  son,  brother.  Each  family  that  had 
made  the  supreme  sacrifice  of  a  member  was  allowed 
to  throw  into  the  cenotaph  a  single  flower.  Soon  the 
huge  casket  was  filled  with  memorial  blossoms. 
France  gave  up  more  than  a  million  and  three  hun- 
dred thousand  of  her  sons  in  the  consummate  strug- 
gle. 

By  the  last  summary  the  United  States  had  given 
210 


The  Fallen  211 

up  less  than  eighty  thousand.     The  figures  on  July 

14th,  1919,  were  as  follows:  ^ 

Previously  Reported 

Reported  July  14th         Total 

Killed  in  action 33,901  7  33,908 

Lost  at  sea 734  .  .  734 

Died  of  wounds    13,618  16  13,634 

Died  of  accident     23,479  25  23,504 

Died  of  disease  5,090  14  5,104 

76,822  76,884 

Of  these  numbers  less  than  ten  per  cent,  were  col- 
lege men.  Although  the  casualty  list  will  increase 
for  years  to  come,  yet,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  about  six 
thousand,  five  hundred  of  the  hundred  and  seventy 
thousand  of  college  men  who  enlisted  died  in  the 
service. 

The  list  that  follows  includes  teachers,  graduates, 
and  former  students.  It  does  not  include,  be  it  said, 
the  members  of  the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps. 
The  percentage,  therefore,  of  those  who  have  lost 
their  lives  in  the  service  is  about  four.  This  per- 
centage is  practically  identical  with  the  percentage 
of  the  men  who  fell,  who  were  members  of  the  Ex- 
peditionary Force. 

The  tables  which  follow  arc  composed  of  reports 
made  in  most  cases  from  statements  furnished  by  the 
institutions  themselves.     Necessarily  they  are  imper- 

iThe  New  York  Times,  July  14th,  1919. 


212      Colleges  and  Cni versifies  in  the  Great  War 

feet.  Every  week  changes  the  facts.  Men  will  con- 
tinue to  die  from  the  effect  of  the  war  for  years  to 
come.  Reports,  too,  of  men  who  died  months  or 
even  years  ago  are  delayed  in  reaching  their  colleges. 
But  the  statements  are  tlic  fullest  that  can  now  be 
offered,  and  substantially  the  changes  to  be  made  in 
them  in  the  future  will  not  fundamentally  alter  the 
present  compilations. 

Died  of      Died  of       Total    (from 
State  Wounds     Diseases        all  causes) 

Alabama    5  10  45 

Arizona    5  5  10 

Arkansas    4  13  18 

California    34  39  245 

Colorado     31  35  69 

Connecticut 98  70  458 

Delaware    4  8 

District  of  Columbia 18  22  41 

Georgia 43  27  77 

Idaho    11  19  33 

Illinois     88  102  319 

Indiana    40  77  270 

Iowa   55  100  163 

Kansas  27  31  174 

Kentucky 18  7  42 

Louisiana    7  16  27 

Maine    28  31  64 

Marj-land 25  18  51 

I^lassachusetts 87  107  601 

Michigan    31  24  284 

Minnesota    52  38  106 

Mississippi    5  4  16 

Missouri    41  26  78 


The  Fallen  213 

Died  of  Died  of       Total    (from 

State                                       Wounds  Diseases        all  causes) 

Montana 8  10  19 

Nebraska    43  43  99 

Nevada 3  8  13 

New  Hampshire 24  35  82 

New  Jersey   92  53  169 

New  Mexico 1  5  6 

New  York   199  172  632 

North  Carolina 33  11  61 

North  Dakota   12  9  22 

Ohio    73  112  231 

Oklahoma    2  18 

Oregon    23  50  93 

Pennsylvania 77  94  191 

Rhode  Island 21  21  51 

South  Carolina 2  7  9 

South  Dakota 14  22  50 

Tennessee 23  22  50 

Texas     57  37  101 

Vermont   14  12  30 

Virginia    57  7(5  150 

Washington    27  43  80 

West  Virginia 4  10  18 

Wisconsin 27  25  50 

Wyoming   4  5  9 


5,419 


These  facts  are  most  sigiiilicaiit.  They  eiiligiiteiL 
the  understanding  as  well  as  move  the  heart.  I>nt  the 
comparative  relation  (tf  tlic  nuiiihci-  of  llic  liillcii  to 
tlie  mimber  of  the  enlisted  becomes  miglitily  more  sig- 
nificant.    Let  me  give  some  examples : 

New  York  University,  from  all  its  departments, 


214      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

gave  1,476  men,  graduates  and  students,  of  whom  3ff 
died,  or  2.4  per  cent. 

The  University  of  Rochester  enrolled  653  gradu- 
ates and  students  in  the  service,  of  whom  11  died,  or 
1.68  per  cent. 

Columbia  University  sent  between  8,000  and  9,000 
into  the  service,  of  whom  188,  or  more,  did  not  re- 
turn, or  2.08  per  cent. 

Syracuse  University  gave  2,400  to  the  service,  of 
whom  90  died,  or  3.8  per  cent. 

Union  University,  from  its  undergraduate  depart- 
ment, enrolled  876,  graduates  and  students,  in  the 
service,  of  whom  26  died,  or  3.08  per  cent. 

Hamilton  College  sent  761  into  the  service,  of 
whom  13  did  not  return,  or  1.7  per  cent. 

Fordham  University,  from  its  undergraduate  de- 
partment graduates  and  students,  gave  493,  and 
from  its  professional  departments,  1001,  of  whom  60 
did  not  return,  or  4  per  cent. 

Williams  College  sent  2,229  into  the  service,  of 
whom  49  did  not  return,  or  2.2  per  cent. 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  gave  1,330  to 
the  service,  of  whom  50  died,  or  3.75  per  cent. 

Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute  sent  673  into  the 
service,  of  w^hom  16  died,  or  2.38  per  cent. 

Harvard  University  sent  9,009  men  into  the  serv- 
ice, of  whom  322  died,  or  3.6  per  cent. 


The  Fallen  215 

Lafayette  College  enrolled  1,056  men,  graduates 
and  students,  and  9  faculty  members,  in  the  service, 
of  whom  32  did  not  return,  or  3.09  per  cent. 

Pennsylvania  College  (not  University)  sent  285 
into  the  service,  of  whom  12  died,  or  4.2  per  cent. 

The  University  of  Pittsburgh,  from  its  under- 
graduate and  professional  departments,  enrolled 
2,559,  gi-aduates  and  students,  and  from  its  faculty 
members,  1G7,  of  whom  63  have  fallen,  or  2.3  per 
cent. 

Swarthmore  College,  from  its  undergraduate  de- 
partment, sent  286  graduates  and  students  into  the 
service,  of  whom  3  died,  or  1  per  cent. 

Dickinson  College,  from  both  its  undergraduate  de- 
partment and  professional  classes  sent  out  558  gradu- 
ates and  students,  of  whom  16  died,  or  2.85  per 
cent. 

Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  from  its  gradu- 
ates and  students  enrolled  345  men,  of  whom  13  died, 
or  3.8  per  cent. 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  from  its  undergrad- 
uate department,  sent  460  graduates  and  students 
into  the  service,  of  whom  16  have  fallen,  or  3.5  per 
cent. 

Miami  University,  from  its  undergraduate  depart- 
ment, gave  575  to  the  service,  of  whom  7  died,  or 
1.2  per  cent. 


21 G      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Trinity  College  (Connecticut),  from  its  under- 
graduate department,  gave  523  graduates  and  stu- 
dents to  the  service,  of  whom  20  died,  or  3.8  per  cent. 

Wesleyan  University  (Connecticut),  sent  1,291 
men  into  the  service,  of  whom  27  have  fallen,  or  2.1 
per  cent. 

Yale  University,  from  its  graduates  and  students, 
sent  7,000  into  the  service,  of  whom  220  died,  or  3.1 
per  cent. 

Princeton  University,  from  all  departments,  en- 
rolled 6,050,  graduates  and  students,  in  the  service, 
of  whom  147  did  not  return,  or  2.4  per  cent. 

Rutgers  College  gave  854  to  the  service,  of  whom 
23  did  not  return,  or  2.7  per  cent. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  from  all  its  depart- 
ments, sent  1,255  into  the  service,  of  whom  24  died, 
or  1.9  per  cent. 

St.  John's  College  (Maryland)  enrolled  400,  of 
whom  24  made  the  supreme  sacrifice,  or  6  per  cent. 

The  University  of  Michigan  gave  over  10,000, 
graduates  and  students,  from  its  undergraduate  and 
professional  departments,  and  200  from  its  faculties, 
of  whom  222  did  not  return,  or  2.2  per  cent. 

^lichigan  Agricultural  College,  from  its  under- 
graduate department,  enrolled  730  graduates  and 
students,  of  whom  25  did  not  return,  or  3.4  per  cent. 


The  Fallen  217 

Kalamazoo  College  gave  212  men  to  the  service,  of 
whom  9  died,  or  4.2  per  cent. 

Alma  College  enrolled  177  in  the  service,  of  whom 
9  did  not  return,  or  5.08  per  cent. 

Hope  College  enrolled  120  in  the  service,  of  whom 
1  died,  or  .8  per  cent. 

The  University  of  Illinois  gave  4,993  graduates 
and  students  to  the  service,  of  whom  167  died,  or 
3.34  per  cent. 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  from  its  undergrad- 
uate department  gave  91,  and  from  its  professional 
departments  gave  80,  graduates  and  students,  to  the 
service,  of  whom  11  died,  or  6.4  per  cent. 

Lake  Forest  College,  from  its  undergraduate  de- 
pai*tment,  sent  115  graduates  and  students  into  the 
service,  of  whom  1  did  not  return,  or  .8  per  cent. 

Dartmouth  College,  from  its  undergraduate  de- 
partment gave  ahout  1,200  graduates  and  students 
to  the  service,  of  whom  90  did  not  return,  or  7.5  per 
cent. 

Rhode  Island  State  College,  from  its  undergrad- 
uate department,  enrolled  146,  of  whom  S  died,  or 
5.5  per  cent. 

Brown  University  sent  2,048  into  the  service,  of 
whom  42  did  not  return,  or  2  per  cent. 

Purdue   University,   from   its   undergraduate   dc- 


218      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

partincnt,  gave  2,639  graduates  and  students  to  the 
sen'ice,  of  whom  54  did  not  return,  or  2  per  cent. 

Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  from  its  under- 
graduate department,  gave  1,300  graduates  and  stu- 
dents to  the  service,  of  whom  59  died,  or  4.5  per  cent. 

The  University  of  California,  from  all  its  depart- 
ments, enrolled  4,037  graduates  and  students,  and 
from  its  faculties,  121,  in  the  service,  of  whom  98 
did  not  return,  or  2.35  per  cent. 

St.  Louis  University,  from  its  undergraduate  de- 
partment, enrolled  1,330,  from  its  professional  de- 
partments, 1,170,  and  from  its  faculty  members,  77, 
of  whom  39  did  not  return,  or  1.5  per  cent. 

Lawrence  College,  from  its  undergraduate  depart- 
ment enrolled  305  members,  graduates  and  students, 
in  the  service,  of  whom  11  died,  or  3.6  per  cent. 

The  University  of  Washington,  including  members 
from  the  undergraduate  and  professional  depart- 
ments, graduates  and  students,  and  from  the  faculty, 
enrolled  2,238  in  the  service,  of  whom  37  did  not  re- 
turn, or  2.6  per  cent. 

The  University  of  Virginia,  including  undergrad- 
uate and  professional  departments,  enrolled  2,875  in 
the  service,  of  whom  66  died,  or  2.3  per  cent. 

risk  University  (colored),  from  all  its  depart- 
ments, gave  145  to  the  service,  of  whom  7  did  not  re- 
turn, or  4.55  per  cent. 


The  Fallen  219 

The  University  of  Georgia,  from  all  its  depart- 
ments, gave  1,693  to  the  service,  of  whom  42  died,  or 
2.5  per  cent. 

Bowdoin  College,  from  its  undergraduate  and  med- 
ical departments,  enrolled  1,215  in  the  service,  of 
whom  29  did  not  return,  or  2.4  per  cent. 

The  University  of  North  Dakota,  from  its  under- 
graduate department  and  professional  departments, 
gave  826  graduates  and  students,  and  from  its  fac- 
ulties, 35,  of  whom  33  died,  or  3.8  per  cent. 

These  records  and  proportions  are  both  significant 
and  moving,  and  possibly  more  moving  to  the  heart 
than  to  the  mind.  For,  one  ever  remembers,  in  ten- 
derness and  gratitude,  as  President  Faunce,  of  Brown 
University,  has  said  in  reference  to  the  fallen  of  his 
own  University: 

"  These  young  men  were  dear  to  their  own  house- 
holds, but  hardly  less  dear  to  Alma  Mater.  Some  of 
them  were  leaders  on  the  campus  in  former  days. 
They  sang  the  old  songs  and  played  the  old  games  and 
dreamed  of  a  long,  bright  future.  Sooner  than  any 
thought  have  their  dreams  come  true.  Their  faces 
vanish,  but  their  souls  are  marching  on. 

"  '  Taps  '  has  sounded  for  them;  '  reveille  '  for  us. 
Heaven  helping  us,  we  will  be  worthy  of  our  unseen 
comrades."  ^ 

1 "  Brown  University  in  the  War,"  page  10. 


220      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Upon  the  fallen  and  upon  the  survivors,  many  hon- 
ors and  decorations  were  bestowed.  The  record  for 
the  University  of  California  is  representative : — 

"  Six  countries  awarded  decorations  to  Californi- 
ans  who  served  in  various  capacities  and  places  dur- 
ing the  war.  Fourteen  of  these  men  were  recipients 
of  two  decorations;  one  received  three. 

*'  The  most  prized  decoration,  the  Distinguished 
Service  Cross,  awarded  for  conspicuous  bravery,  was 
given  to  eleven  men.  Three  others  received  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Medal,  given  for  highly  valuable 
services. 

"  Other  decorations  and  honors  awai'ded  are :  — 
France;  Legion  of  Honor,  7;  Croix  de  Guerre,  36; 
Medaille  Sante,  1 :  Belgium ;  Order  of  the  Crown,  9 ; 
Order  of  the  Cross,  5  :  British  decorations,  3 :  Italian 
decorations,  5 :  Servian,  1."  ^ 

If  one  were  to  attempt  to  make  mention  of  special 
cases  of  bravery,  these  pages  would  become  too  nu- 
merous. And  yet  I  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  cer- 
tain instances  which,  precious  and  moving  in  them- 
selves, are  still  only  illustrative. 

A  member  of  the  Class  of  1915  in  the  University 
of  California  was  awarded  the  Croix  de  Guerre  and 
D.  S.  C.  "  for  extraordinary  heroism  in  action  near 

1  From  "  The  University  of  California  Honor  Roll,"  page  14. 


The  Fallen  221 

the  Meuse  River.  Wlien  the  company  on  his  left 
was  checked  by  heavy  machine  gim  fire  he  led  a  pla- 
toon forward  and  surrounded  a  large  number  of  the 
enemy,  capturing  155  prisoners  and  seventeen  ma- 
chine guns.  Pushing  on,  he  took  the  town  of  Mim 
St.  Georges  and  many  machine  gun  positions.  Al- 
though painfully  wounded  he  refused  to  be  evacuated 
and  remained  with  his  men  for  two  days  until  he  was 
ordered  to  the  rear." 

Another  member,  of  the  class  of  1916,  was  cited 
"  for  bravery  and  coolheadedness  in  bringing  his 
plane  safely  to  earth  after  it  had  caught  fire  at  3,000 
m.  altitude  and  making  a  good  landing  in  a  strange 
field  and  extinguishing  the  fire  without  help." 

A  member  of  the  following  class  was  awarded  D. 
S.  C  "for  displaying  conspicuous  leadership.  He 
led  his  platoon  against  an  enemy  battery  while  it  was 
in  action.  Through  his  skillful  maneuvering  forty- 
two  prisoners,  ten  pieces  of  artillery  and  five  machine 
guns  were  captured." 

A  member  of  the  class  of  1918  was  awarded  the 
Croix  de  Guerre  with  palms  by  France  at  the  battle 
of  the  Meuse,  "  for  extraordinary  heroism  in  ac- 
tion." He  "  displayed  the  highest  qualities  of  cour- 
age and  leadership  in  leading  his  platoon  through  to 
its  objective  under  a  heavy  barrage  of  machin(!-gun 


222     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

and  artillery  fire  without  flank  support.  He  held  his 
objective  under  murderous  artillery  and  machine-gun 
fire  until  relieved."  ^ 

The  percentage  of  American  college  men  vs^ho 
gave  up  their  lives  in  the  Civil  War  is  much 
larger  than  the  proportion  of  those  vrho  made  the 
great  sacrifice  in  the  present.  In  round  numbers, 
Harvard  sent  9,000  into  the  war,  of  whom  about 
322  died,  or  3.6  per  cent.  To  the  Civil  War 
she  gave  1,232  men,  of  whom  138  died,  or  11.2  per 
cent.  To  the  Civil  War  also,  Yale  sent  832  men  into 
the  liorthem  service,  of  whom  100  died,  or  12  per 
cent.  Of  the  colleges  of  the  South  sending  men  into 
the  Civil  War,  the  University  of  Virginia  and  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  stand  forth  preemi- 
nent. Ko  less  than  200  students  of  the  University 
of  Virginia  gave  up  their  lives  defending  their  State. 
Of  the  University  of  N^orth  Carolina,  312  died,  which 
was  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  graduates  for  the  forty 
years  preceding  the  attack  on  Ft.  Sumter.  It  would 
probably  be  fair  to  say  that  the  percentage  of  the 
number  of  college  students,  graduates  and  teachers 
losing  their  lives  in  the  Civil  War  was  four  times 
greater  than  the  percentage  of  the  number  losing  their 
lives  in  the  World  War. 

Of  course,  the  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.     The  Civil 

1  Ibid.,  pages  15-16. 


The  Fallen  223 

War  occupied  four  years.  The  Civil  War  made  a 
more  mighty  appeal  to  the  colleges  of  the  Xorth  than 
did  the  present  war,  and  the  appeal  made  to  the  col- 
leges of  the  South  in  the  great  civil  struggle  was  of 
incomparable  intensity. 

Inspiring  and  thrilling  as  was  the  record  made  by 
American  college  men  in  the  present  war,  it  was  yet 
not  so  great  as  that  made  by  the  colleges  of  the  Allies. 
The  universities  of  Canada  sent  forth  a  far  greater 
proportion  of  their  sons  than  did  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities of  the  nation  south  of  the  line.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto,  for  instance,  contributed  about 
6,400  men  from  students'  bench  and  professors'  chair, 
of  whom  604  gave  up  their  lives,  or  somewhat  more 
than  10  per  cent.  McGill  University,  at  Montreal, 
offered  a  like  record. 

The  entrance  of  the  graduates  and  undergraduates 
of  the  English  universities  was  at  least  as  moving  as 
the  enlistment  of  the  American  college  men.  The 
English  came  into  the  war  earlier  by  almost  three 
years ;  and  the  war  to  them  meant  a  richer  sacrifice, 
almost  as  much  more  sacrificial  as  the  English  Cam- 
bridge is  nearer  to  the  Mame  than  is  the  American 
city  on  the  Charles.  The  great  human  motives,  how- 
ever, were  alike,  influencing  and  inspiring  both  bodies 
of  academic  youth.  The  conditions  of  simplicity,  of 
quietness,  of  naturalness,  of  high  resolve,  of  spiritual 


•224:      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

exultation,  and  of  honor  mark  both  sets  of  students. 
A  sense  of  humanity,  of  patriotism,  and  the  instinct 
of  doing  one's  duty  were  alike  present.  As  with  a 
garment,  that  Anglo-Saxon  sense  of  duty  clothed  the 
American  student  and  the  English.  Nelson's  call 
has  entered  the  academic  cloister.  Of  this  condi- 
tion no  worthier  interpreter  could  be  found  than  the 
Master  of  Magdalene  at  Cambridge,  who  writing  of 
the  enrollment  of  Cambridge  men  said : 

"  What  I  would  make  clear,  above  everything,  is 
the  extreme  simplicity  of  it  all.  It  is  just  the  steady 
setting  of  a  great  current  of  emotion  in  one  direction. 
It  is  not  a  question  of  argument  or  motive  or  excite- 
ment, or  even  of  indignation;  it  is  not  even  a  con- 
scious sense  of  duty  or  honor.  It  is  something 
stronger  and  finer  than  all  these,  a  passion  of  citizen- 
ship and  humanity,  which,  so  far  from  growing  dim 
and  faint  in  long  peace  and  prosperity,  seems  to 
have  been  nurtured  into  a  freshness  and  spontaneity 
which  no  imagination  could  have  foreseen.  English- 
men are  often  accused  of  individualism  and  an  almost 
fantastic  personal  independence;  it  is  all  true, 'so  far 
as  the  smaller  things  of  life  are  concerned.  But  the 
war  has  revealed  that  when  once  a  national  need 
stands  out,  there  is  no  sacrifice,  no  endurance,  no  loss 
which  the  Englishman  is  not  prepared  to  face;  and 
not  to  persuade  himself  into  it,  or  to  trample  upon 


The  Fallen  225 

one  part  of  his  nature,  but  to  mingle  with  the  stream, 
to  flow  with  it,  and  to  find  in  tliis  prodigious  unity 
the  satisfaction  of  his  best  hopes  and  desires."  ^ 

In  a  similar  spirit,  Sir  Herbert  Warren,  the  Presi- 
dent of  ^lagdalen,  Oxford,  wrote: 

"  Xo  city  in  England  is  more  changed  by  the  War 
than  Oxford.  Xone  speaks  its  eifect  more  elo- 
quently than  this  fair,  mournful  witness.  It  is  with 
the  eloquence  of  her  sad,  mute  self,  but  the  figures 
given  below  of  the  Oxford  '  Roll  of  Service  '  are  also 
eloquent.  Eleven  thousand  old  Oxford  men  have 
passed  into  the  service  of  their  country.  Over  1,400 
have  already  fallen;  100  more  are  missing — 1,500 
in  all,  among  them  many  of  the  best  scholars,  the  fin- 
est athletes,  the  leaders  of  their  years.  But  this  does 
not  bring  home  the  absolute  devastation  and  desola- 
tion of  what  may  bo  called  actual  living  Oxford  as  she 
was  before  the  War.  There  should  be  well  over 
3,000  undergraduates  at  this  moment  in  residence. 
In  June,  11)14,  every  college  was  full  to  ovcrllow- 
ing.  Step  into  any  one  to-day !  If  it  is  full  at  all, 
it  is  full  of  young  soldiers  in  khaki !  When  they  are 
out  it  is  empty.  The  remnant  of  undergrachiates, 
the  invalid,  the  crippled,  the  neutrals,  make  abso- 

1  Article  by  Dr.  Arthur  C.  Benson,  Master  of  Ma<,'dalent>, 
Cambridge  University  —  British  Universities  and  the  War  — 
page  9. 


22G      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

lutely  no  show  at  all.  They  can  hardly  be  discov- 
ered. Colleges  which  before  the  War  contained  150 
now  contain  half  a  dozen.  Emptiness,  silence  reign 
everywhere.     The  yonnger  teachers  are  gone  too."  ^ 

A  similar  record  is  the  history  of  the  Scotch  uni- 
versities of  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen  and 
Edinburgh.  St.  Andrews,  the  oldest  and  the  small- 
est of  the  quartette,  sent  55  members  of  its  staff  en- 
rolled, 498  graduates  and  former  students,  and  258 
undergraduates,  or  a  total  of  811  into  the  service. 
Of  this  number  117  fell. 

Glasgow,  the  second  in  age  gave  no  less  than  3,363 
of  students  and  graduates  to  the  naval  and  military 
service,  of  whom  no  less  than  2,650  held  cormnis- 
sions.  Of  this  number,  525  were  killed  or  died  of 
their  wounds.  The  number  of  the  missing  exceeded 
600. 

A  similar  report  belonged  to  the  University  of 
Aberdeen.  2,786  members  and  alumni  were  engaged 
in  all  branches  of  the  service,  of  which  295  did  not 
return. 

The  Roll  of  Honor  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh was  yet  more  conspicuous,  although  no  more 
worthy.  The  total  enrollment  was  5,162,  of  whom 
649  died. 

1  Article  by  Sir  Herbert  Warren,  K.  C.  V.  O.,  President  of 
!Magdalen,  Oxford  University  —  British  Universities  and  the 
War  —  page  3. 


The  Fallen  227 

The  list  of  honors  that  belonged  to  each  of  these 
universities  is  long,  distinguished,  thrilling.  In 
Edinburgh  it  included  500  names,  in  Aberdeen,  more 
than  300,  in  St.  Andrews  more  than  100.  And  in 
Glasgow,  more  than  600.  The  Scotch  universities, 
always  the  home  of  patriotism,  have  never  more  glori- 
ously proved  their  valor. 

The  newer  Midland  universities  manifested  the 
same  spirit  of  patriotic  devotion.  The  number  of  the 
students  was  in  some  instances  reduced  to  one-fourth 
of  the  usual  enrollment.  They  especially  devoted 
themselves  to  scientific  research,  and  of  many  kinds. 
Professors  of  chemistry  and  of  mining,  of  course, 
made  important  contributions.  Electrical  engineers 
were  engaged  on  wireless  telegraphy  and  telephone 
equipment.  Pathological  professors  were  busy  in 
hospitals.  Individual  universities  made  unique  of- 
ferings. The  coal,  gas  and  fuel  industry  depart- 
ments of  Leeds  were  assigned  to  the  duty  of  testing 
high  explosives  and  of  analyzing  coal  tar.  Tlie 
leather  industry  department  gave  attention  to  the 
leather  equipment  of  the  forces.  The  engineers 
tested  metals  in  aeroplane  spars  and  gave  instruc- 
tion in  elementary  machine  work  for  munition  work- 
ers. The  textile  industry  department  examined 
army  cloth  and  aeroplane  fabrics.  And  the  color 
chemistry  department  took  an  active  part  in  scien- 


228      CoUcgcs  and  Fnivcrsilies  in  the  Great  War 

tific  research  respecting  the  making  of  dyes.  Each 
nniversity  of  the  Midhmds  mobilized  every  force  for 
tlie  winning  of  the  war.  Never  was  there  an  experi- 
ence in  their  history  which  commandeered  so  com- 
pletely all  faculties  and  every  facility. 

But  perhaps  a  yet  more  moving  presentation  is 
found  in  the  contribution  made  by  French  students 
and  teachers.  No  less  than  259  professors  of  litera- 
ture, science,  medicine  and  law  of  the  University  of 
Paris  or  of  the  provincial  universities  gave  up  their 
lives,  and  the  number  of  teachers,  schoolmasters  and 
professors  in  the  various  schools  and  colleges  of 
France,  who  sacrificed  all  for  their  beautiful  land 
reaches  the  great  total  of  6,000.  The  University  of 
Paris  writes  635  names  on  its  roll  of  honor.  The 
story  of  the  student  patriot  and  of  the  patriot  student 
touches  the  depths  of  the  grateful  heart.  The  great- 
ness of  the  offering  becomes  the  more  impressive  when 
it  is  remembered  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1914  the  number  of  students  in  the  French  Universi- 
ties was  only  42,000. 

The  record  of  the  college  men  in  the  war  of  all 
nations  is  a  record  which  thrills.  I  would  not  say  it 
is  a  record  more  glorious  than  that  of  non-college 
men,  but  it  is  certainly  at  least  as  glorious.  Hun- 
dreds of  them  have  been  cited  for  heroism.  Each  in- 
dividual instance  bears  its  ov^n  form  of  bravery,  but 


The  Fallen  229 

all  are  alike  in  certain  gi-eat  respects.  Alike  are  the 
records  in  contempt  of  danger ;  alike  in  the  endurance 
of  pain ;  alike  in  the  force  of  will  overcoming  physical 
weakness ;  alike  in  showing  poise  and  calmness  when 
the  temptation  was  to  lose  one's  head  and  one's 
nerves;  alike  in  risking  life  to  save  a  comrade;  alike 
in  supporting  the  morale  of  the  line  when  it  was  in 
danger  of  breaking;  alike  in  throwing  away  leave 
tickets  and  returning  to  the  charge ;  alike,  when  one 
was  wounded  in  leg  or  thigh,  hopping  and  crawling, 
delivering  messages.  It  was  the  brain  as  well  as  the 
heart  and  the  will  that  did  the  duty  of  the  hour  and 
of  the  day.  The  record  belongs  alike  to  the  air,  to 
the  sea,  and  to  the  land.  It  belongs  quite  as  much 
to  the  wounded  who  recovered,  as  to  the  wounded  and 
the  dead.  It  really  belongs  quite  as  nuieh  and  essen- 
tially to  the  college  men  who  wanted  to  go  overseas 
and  over  the  top,  and  were  not  able,  as  to  those  who 
did  venture  and  sacrificed  all. 

The  mood  in  which  all  was  borne  was  suoli  as  be- 
cometh  the  gentleman.  The  college  ni;iii  fought  at. 
Cambrai  and  Chateau  Thierry,  and  witli  (Ictcniiiiia- 
tion,  discrimination,  and  exultation.  He  bore  his 
wounds  in  hospital  wards  with  a  stoic  patience  which 
does  not  belong  to  impulsive  youth,  lie  wore  his 
crown  of  thorns,  as  one  has  said,  as  if  it  were  cap  and 
bells.     He  was  at  once  careless  and  serious,  frivo- 


230      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Ions  aud  religious,  living  in  the  full  for  to-day,  and 
not  forgetting  the  forthcoming  tomorrow ;  free  from 
hate  for  his  enemy,  hut  determined  to  punish  him  for. 
all  his  ill  doings,  serving  his  native  land,  yet  remem- 
bering he  was  a  soldier  of  humanity;  true  to  the 
human  brotherhood,  yet  not  forgetting  the  divine 
Father. 

It  is  a  ghostly  procession,  too,  which  the  pious  im- 
agination beholds.  The  dead  college  men  go  march- 
ing by.  It  is  a  motley,  young,  silent  throng.  Some 
wear  the  scholar's  gown  and  the  student's  cap,  some 
the  track,  and  some  the  rowing,  uniform,  but  all  do 
wear  the  khaki.  All  are  watchful  and  strong,  reso- 
lute and  happy.  Hope  shines  on  their  foreheads.  A 
smile  breaks  on  their  faces,  and  a  sense  of  freedom 
swings  along  in  their  march.  With  a  lithe  step  and 
strong  stride,  they  move  steadily  up  their  via  sacra, 
keeping  time  to  songs  which  seem  half  college  and 
half  patriotic.  They  have  gone  west,  but  their  sun 
of  remembrance  shall  never  set  in  the  college  halls 
where  once  they  walked,  and  on  the  walls  of  which, 
their  names,  cut  in  bronze,  shall  be  held  in  lasting 
love. 

"  They  gave  their  manly  youth  away  for  country  and  for 

God." 
"  The  dead  do  not  die 

"WTio  fall  in  the  cause  that  angels  uphold; 

For  the  Right  will  be  Right  while  the  stars  sail  the  sky." 


XIV 

THE    COMMENCEMENTS    OF    THE    WAB    PERIODS 

The  three  cominencements  which  fell  in  the  Amer- 
ican war  period  were  each  of  unique  impressiveuess. 
They  also  showed  fundamental  differences  in  em- 
phasis as  in  time.  In  the  commencement  of  the  year 
1917,  less  than  three  months  after  the  declaration  of 
war,  the  martial  note  could  be  plainly  heard,  and 
it  was  heard  quite  as  much  in  the  voice  of  prophecy 
as  of  affirmation,  quite  as  much  as  an  expression  of 
hope  or  of  fear  as  of  achievement  In  the  com- 
mencement of  1918  a  different  spirit  prevailed. 
Strength,  determination,  assurance,  the  glory  of  sac- 
rifice, the  value  of  duty,  the  absolute  certainty  of 
fighting  the  war  unto  victory,  were  the  key-notes  of 
address  and  oration.  In  the  commencement  of  1919 
a  still  further  change  was  seen  and  heard.  Victory 
had  been  won.  America  was  in  tears,  and  was  also 
glad  and  grateful. 

The  commencements  of  1918  and  of  lUI!)  were 
impressive  in  the  depleted  classes  that  came  iij)  for 
their  degrees.     In  one  college  at  least,  llobiirt,   in 

231 


232      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

10 IS,  no  commencement  was  held.  In  even  the 
Civil  War  period  the  usual  commencement  had  been 
observed,  but  in  1918  only  three  members  of  the 
senior  class  remained  and  barely  thirty-five  students 
of  the  whole,  though  small,  enrollment.  In  1918 
Brown  University  gave  only  fifty-one  degrees  to  men ; 
Princeton  only  sixty-five;  Yale  only  three  hundred 
to  all  graduates  rather  than  the  usual  number  of  eight 
hundred ;  Amherst  sixty-four ;  and  Harvard  eight 
hundred  and  nineteen  of  which  two  hundred  and 
forty-seven  represented  the  Bachelor  degree.  Har- 
vard also  gave  three  hundred  and  twenty-one  certifi- 
cates or  qualified  degrees  to  men  who  had  entered  the 
military  and  naval  service  of  the  United  States  or  of 
the  Allies.  In  1919  Dartmouth  conferred  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  degrees,  and  thirteen  men  of 
the  class  had  fallen  in  the  service.  Bates  conferred 
one  hundred  degrees  on  both  men  and  women,  the 
University  of  Vermont  one  hundred  and  seven,  also 
on  both  men  and  women,  Bowdoin  sixty-seven  and 
several  certificates  of  honor  to  men  who  were  still  in 
the  service  in  France.  Cornell  in  1919  conferred 
only  three  hundred  and  thirty-three  degrees,  the 
smallest  number  for  many  years. 

The  academic  festivities  too  witnessed  a  curtail- 
ment commensurate  with  the  lessened  numbers.  The 
customary  functions  were  abridged  or  united.     Sim- 


The  Commencements  of  the  War  Periods     233 

plicity  prevailed.  Unnecessary  expense  was  avoided. 
Spreads  were  few  and  guests  also  were  few.  Grad- 
uates' reunions  were  not  held  or  were  held  in  a  very 
sober  manner.  Many  alumni  did  not  lend  themselves 
to  festivities  in  which  their  hearts  could  not  be  gay. 
Hilarity  lessened.  One  purpose  was  to  save  money 
and  to  give  the  money  thus  saved  to  the  Red  Cross 
or  other  war  activities. 

In  all  festivities  formal  and  informal,  however  les- 
sened, certain  key-notes  were  struck,  in  Baccalaureate 
sermon  and  Presidential  address,  and  in  the  speeches 
of  representative  students  and  alumni.  Chief  among 
these  notes  were  loyalty  to  the  nation,  leadership, 
vision,  public  service,  the  uses  of  victory  won  or  to  be 
won,  respect  for  the  humanistic  classics,  faith  in  tlic 
future,  the  world's  reconstruction.  Not  imfamiliar 
are  such  sentiments  to  commencement  audiences,  but 
the  war  being  fought  or  the  war  having  been  won, 
gave  to  these  topics  peculiar  emphasis.  Graduation 
offered  unique  opportunities  for  their  application. 
Occasionally  a  voice  was  heard  proclaiming  that  there 
were  other  causes  in  the  world  besides  the  war,  or  its 
origin,  conduct  and  results.  But  these  dissentient 
intimations  were  both  few  and  rather  inaudible. 

Mr.  Herbert  Hoover  at  the  Harvard  commence- 
ment of  1017,  having  recfivod  a  degree,  said  :  '^  The 
Belgian  relief  was  not  my  labor ;  it  was  the  labor  of 


234      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

two  hundred  xVmerican  university  men.  .  .  .  This 
army  of  civilians  is  an  army  of  specialists,  and  they 
can  be  officered  only  by  the  men  from  their  own  ranks 
—  from  the  commercial  body  of  the  nation  who  have 
knowledge  and  experience  in  all  of  the  multitudinous 
branches  of  their  production  and  labor;  and  in  this 
officership  from  the  industrial  ranks  is  the  security  of 
democracy.  These  men  must  have  authority  and 
power  to  act.  We  give  power  to  direct,  and  even  that 
of  life  and  death  over  our  citizens,  to  the  officers  of 
our  regular  army.  These  powers  have  the  restraint 
only  of  law  and  public  opinion.  Is  it  more  wrong  to 
give  the  right  to  direct  the  use  of  property  to  the  offi- 
cers of  this  civilian  army,  subject  also  to  law  and  pub- 
lic opinion  ?  Has  this  country  descended  to  a  level 
of  materialism  that  leads  it  to  force  its  sons  to  the 
trenches  and  to  demand  immunity  for  its  property? 
If  we  are  to  cling  to  luxury  and  profit,  our  sons  and 
the  sons  of  the  allies  will  die  in  vain."  ^  At  the  same 
college  the  President  of  the  Alumni  Association  in 
the  commencement  of  the  following  year,  Dr.  George 
A.  Gordon  said :  "  The  war  that  fills  our  minds  to- 
day is  the  war  of  the  preservation  of  humanity. 
Nothing  less  is  at  stake  than  the  integrity  of  the 
moral  life  of  the  race,  the  moral  fellowship  of  man- 
1  Barvard  Alumni  Bulletin,  page  749  and  750  of  1916-1917. 


The  Commencements  of  the  ^Yar  Periods     235 

kind,  the  reality  of  justice  among  men  and  nations, 
the  right  of  all  peoples,  great  and  small,  to  express  in 
freedom  their  individual  genius,  upon  that  portion  of 
the  earth's  surface  which  they  call  their  own ;  a  por- 
tion of  the  earth  made  beautiful  by  family  life,  the 
mystic  influence  of  an  extended  ancestry,  and  the  hal- 
lowing power  of  an  immemorial  fellowship  in  toil,  in 
joy,  and  in  hope. 

"  When  faith  between  man  and  man,  nation  and 
nation  ceases,  faith  between  man  and  the  Infinite 
ceases  or  remains  only  as  a  withered  and  sickening 
hypocrisy.  The  origins  of  our  Christian  civilization 
are  in  a  moral  league  with  the  Eternal,  supported, 
made  sincere  and  availing,  by  a  moral  league  among 
human  beings.  Our  highest  possessions,  and  our  best 
hopes  for  mankind  are  the  fruit  of  this  double  fun- 
damental faith. 

"  Here  our  country  claims  our  utmost  homage ;  she 
is  indeed  illustrious  in  the  character  that  she  has  won. 
If  she  had  thought  meanly  of  herself  she  could  have 
evaded  this  war.  If  she  had  been  willing  to  make  a 
league  with  death  and  a  covenant  with  hell,  she  might 
have  added  to  her  wealth  and  case.  She  would  not, 
she  could  not  play  the  role  of  betrayer  to  the  human- 
ity of  man.  At  her  own  cost,  and  for  no  vulgar  gain, 
she  has  gone  forth  the  soldier  of  humanity.     There- 


:23G     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

fore,  she  stands  before  the  world  with  clean  hands  and 
a  pure  heart."  ^ 

At  the  commencement  of  Yale  in  1918,  President 
Hadley,  speaking  to  the  Alumni  on  What  War  Had 
Done  for  Yale,  said :  "  The  war  has  thus  far  proved 
on  the  whole  a  source  of  strength  rather  than  weak- 
ness to  the  college.  For  the  lirst  time  m  many  years 
it  has  had  a  dominant  motive  that  it  could  set  before 
its  students ;  a  motive  which,  in  spite  of  frequent  dif- 
ficulties and  occasional  backslidings,  took  hold  of  the 
student  body  as  a  whole. 

"  We  have  always  spoken  of  Yale  as  a  place  de- 
voted to  public  service.  We  have  tried  to  make  pub- 
lic service  the  distinctive  idea  and  purpose  of  Yale 
education.  ]^ow  for  the  first  time  we  have  been  able 
to  give  this  word  '  public  service '  a  concrete  mean- 
ing which  the  students  understand.  The  uniform  of 
the  Army  or  Navy  which  they  wear  is  a  visible  sym- 
bol of  the  purpose  for  which  they  come.  The  Yale 
student  of  to-day  is  no  longer  here  to  have  a  good 
time.  He  is  here  to  prepare  himself  for  something 
—  Army,  Xavy,  engineers ;  or  if  disqualified  from  all 
these,  for  helping  to  win  the  war  at  home.  This 
gives  to  academic  study  the  zeal  and  spirit  which  was 
formerly  reserved  for  professional  study.  Trigo- 
^  Harvard  Alumni  Bulletin,  page  759  of  1917-1918. 


The  Commencements  of  the  TTar  Periods     237 

nometry  has  a  new  meaning  when  it  serves  as  a  basis 
for  practical  work  in  navigation  or  for  firing  data. 
Many  a  man  who  is  unable  to  appreciate  mathematics 
for  its  own  sake  becomes  surprisingly  proficient  when 
he  finds  that  it  will  enable  him  to  hit  his  enemy  at 
three  miles'  distance.  What  is  true  of  mathematics  is 
true  of  French  and  is  true  of  history.  Each  study 
gains  new  life  when  it  prepares  a  man  to  take  part  in 
war  problems. 

"  Not  only  do  the  students  feel  that  they  are  en- 
gaged in  a  work  of  preparation;  they  have  gone  far 
enough  to  see  that  they  have  accomplished  something. 
They  no  longer  have  to  take  the  word  of  their  instruc- 
tors that  the  curriculum  of  the  Yale  Field  Artillery 
School,  or  the  somewhat  more  elastic  course  of  the 
Yale  Naval  Training  Unit,  will  prepare  them  for 
service.  They  have  visible  signs  before  them  that 
it  does  prepare  them.  Seventy  line  commissions  in 
the  Navy  out  of  seventy-one  men  sent  up  by  Yale  is  a 
visible  and  tangible  object  lesson  to  those  who  stay 
at  home  as  to  the  direct  connection  between  what  they 
do  here  and  what  they  will  be  able  to  do  hereafter- 
ward.  The  readiness  of  the  Government  to  take  all 
our  artillerists,  of  every  age,  into  Government  camps 
is  perhaps  an  even  clearer  object  lesson,  because  it 
comes  directly  home  to  each  boy,  whether  he  is  of 


238     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

draft  age  or  not,  and  shows  him  that  the  Government 
needs  men  who  understand  trigonometry  even  more 
than  men  who  know  the  manual  of  arras."  ^ 

At  the  commencement  of  the  University  of  Mich- 
igan, Dean  Keppel  of  Columbia,  serving  as  Third 
Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  said : 

"  What  have  we  learned  ?  In  the  first  place,  we 
have  learned  that  as  a  nation,  we  possess  the  power  to 
see  a  big  job  through,  and  we  possess  it  because  we 
have  the  qualities  of  youth  —  enthusiasm,  learning, 
capacity,  energy,  elasticity,  initiative  —  the  pioneer- 
ing spirit.  We  have  the  shortcomings  of  youth  also 
' —  impatience,  superficiality,  improvidence,  cock- 
sureness  —  but  when  the  test  came  we  strengthened 
our  virtues  and  to  a  large  extent  overcame  our  fail- 
ings. 

"  In  the  second  place,  we  have  learned  that  to  see 
the  job  through  we  need  all  of  the  nation,  men  and 
women,  not  merely  the  professional  arms  and  the  mys- 
terious powers  of  finance  —  we  need  all  of  every  one. 
We  need  them  not  as  individuals,  but  as  a  team  and 
we  have  learned  that  we  can  develop  team  play. 

"  Our  easiest  jobs  were  the  raising  of  our  men  and 
our  money;  our  hardest,  the  molding  of  the  whole 
into  an  organic  unity. 

"  We  should  never  again  face  a  great  national 
1  Boston  Transcript,  June  19th,  1918. 


The  Commencements  of  ihe  War  Periods     239 

crisis  with  nearly  one-third  of  our  men  of  military 
age  unfit  for  hard  physical  work.  "We  need  cam- 
paigns of  physical  education  and  social  hygiene,  and 
we  need  to  apply  the  lesson  in  human  salvage  which 
the  army  has  learned  during  the  war. 

"  In  the  third  place,  we  have  learned  that  to  ac- 
complish a  good  result,  we  need  the  leadership  of 
those  who  know,  and  who  know  vividly  and  construc- 
tively. Our  experience  has  shown  that  in  certain 
fields,  finance,  science,  manufacturing  in  quantity 
production,  welfare  work,  we  had  a  supply  of  those 
who  knew.  In  other  fields,  in  intimate  knowledge 
of  foreign  conditions  and  foreign  languages,  for  ex- 
ample, we  had  not.  At  first  we  didn't  know  where 
our  leaders  were,  and  in  many  cases  we  began  by  fol- 
lowing false  prophets. 

"  The  vital  importance  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
where  the  man  we  need  is  to  be  found  can  be  shown 
by  an  example:  A  code  message  from  Germany,  di- 
recting the  dismantling  of  the  German  ships  which 
lay  in  our  American  ports,  was  intercepted.  If  we 
had  known  that  there  was  a  professor  of  English  in 
the  University  of  Chicago,  who  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
mediaeval  researches  had  developed  the  power  of  read- 
ing ciphers  almost  at  sight,  that  cable  from  Germany 
could  have  been  promptly  deciphered,  the  sabotage 
forestalled,  and  something  like  six  months  in  the  use 


240      Colleges  and  UniversHies  in  the  Great  War 

of  these  ships  for  the  transport  of  troops  and  muni- 
tions could  have  been  gained. 

"  The  fourth  lesson  of  which  I  wish  to  speak  is  that 
a  high  aim  and  ideal  is  what  counts  most  of  all,  and 
what  lifts  the  individual  up  from  selfishness  and 
sloth.  ^Vhat  bound  the  country  together  and  made 
the  transformation  which  still  seems  miraculous,  was 
the  noble  national  aim,  the  complete  dedication  to  the 
task  before  us,  the  utter  absence  of  any  selfish  or  self- 
seeking  factor  in  the  whole  enterprise.  The  conduct 
of  our  soldiers,  their  submission  to  a  discipline  to 
which  most  of  them  were  completely  unused  was,  I 
think,  in  a  large  measure  due  to  this  recognition."  ^ 

At  the  Commencement  of  Cornell  University  of 
1919,  Ex-Governor  Charles  E.  Hughes  said: 

"  With  the  world  in  ferment,  we  are  appraising 
the  steadying  and  conserving  influences  and  we  look 
to  the  university  for  something  more  than  the  dis- 
charge of  its  primary  and  distinctive  function  in  in- 
struction. What  aid  may  we  expect  to  counteract 
the  destructive  aims  of  those  who  would  wreck  free 
government  and  enthrone  the  tyranny  of  class  hat- 
red ?  Democracy  cannot  be  saved  by  arms,  our  vic- 
tory has  preserved  the  opportunity  to  have  democ- 
racy. But  it  remains  for  the  testing  days  of  peace  to 
determine  whether  democracy  itself  can  be  preserved. 

1  Detroit  Free  Press,  26th  of  June,  1919. 


The  Commencements  of  the  War  Periods     241 

The  success  of  the  endeavor  must  be  the  result  of 
many  cooperating  forces,  preeminent  among  which 
will  be  the  sentiment  and  convictions  of  men  trained 
in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning. 

"  The  battle  of  free  government  is  never  com- 
pletely won.  It  is  an  age-long  struggle  against  foes 
without  and  more  insidious  and  dangerous  foes 
within.  Now,  with  tyrants  overthrown  and  autoc- 
racy destroyed  in  its  last  citadel,  we  must  fight  anew. 
Where  in  democracy  should  we  look  for  the  cham- 
pions of  the  fundamental  principles  of  liberty,  if 
not  in  the  students  of  history  —  to  those  who  have 
pondered  over  the  long  contests  for  equal  rights  ?  "  ^ 

These  lengthy  extracts  and  many  others  which 
might  be  added  voice  the  general  and  highest  senti- 
ments of  the  human  soul.  They  are  the  sentiments 
of  youth  and  of  age,  of  the  one  who  believes  in  Amer- 
ica first,  and  the  one  who  believes  in  the  Allies  first. 
They  touch  the  deepest  elements  of  humanity  and 
they  ascend  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  imagination  of 
man. 

Among  the  significant  elements  of  the  commence- 
ments and  especially  of  that  of  1919,  were  the  hon- 
orary degrees  given  to  those  who  were  engaged  in  the 
war  or  in  service  connected  with  the  war.  Vermont 
gave  to  Admiral  Mayo  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1919, 

1  Boston   Transcript,  June  21  Bt,   1919. 


242      Colleges  aiid  Universities  in  the  Great  ^Yar 

and  Bates  the  same  degree  to  Major  General  Hersey. 
Princeton,  Yale  and  other  colleges  gave  to  Davidson, 
President  of  the  Red  Cross,  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
Holy  Cross  College  of  Worcester  gave  to  William 
Mulligan,  Director  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus  War 
Activities,  also  an  LL.D.  In  the  commencement  of 
that  year  also,  Rear  Admiral  Sims  received  an  LL.D. 
from  both  Yale  and  Harvard.  The  University  of 
Pennsylvania  conferred  on  Brigadier  General  At- 
terbury,  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1919. 

In  this  same  relationship  also  is  heard  the  key- 
note of  internationalism.  For  both  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge conferred  on  General  Pershing  a  degree  in 
1919,  and  Oxford  gave  a  D.C.L.  to  Herbert  Hoover 
in  the  same  year.  Lord  Reading  received  an  LL.D. 
at  several  American  universities.  Columbia  gave  an 
LL.D.  to  Secretary  Lansing  in  1918,  and  Wisconsin 
gave  one  to  Marcel  Knecht  of  the  French  High  Com- 
mission in  recognition  of  his  work  in  promoting 
friendly  relations  and  mutual  understanding  between 
the  people  of  the  United  States  and  his  own  nation. 
Amherst  in  1918  gave  the  degree  of  LL.D.  to  Lieu- 
tenant General,  Sir  James  Wilcox,  the  Governor  of 
Bermuda. 

It  may  also  be  said  that  Brown  University,  at  its 
one  hundred  and  fiftieth  annual  commencement,  took 
away  the  degree  which  had  been  previously  conferred 


The  Commencements  of  the  War  Periods     243 

upon  Ambassador  Bemsdorff.  The  vote  annulling 
the  honor  declared  that  while  he  was  Ambassador  of 
the  Imperial  German  Government  to  the  United 
States,  and  while  the  two  nations  were  still  at  peace, 
he  was  guilty  of  conduct  unworthy  of  a  gentleman 
and  a  diplomat. 

Certain  degrees  that  might  be  called  war  degrees 
were  also  conferred  upon  students  who  had  entered 
the  national  service  from  the  college  and  had  not  re- 
turned. These  degrees  took  various  forms  and  were 
based  upon  different  foundations.  It  may  in  general 
be  said  that  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  were  conferred  upon 
students  of  several  colleges  who  had  finished  at  least 
three  of  the  four  years  of  college  residence.  The  cus- 
tom begun  in  American  colleges  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  to  substitute  in  a  formal  way,  service 
in  the  Army  or  Navy  for  academic  study  was  thus 
continued  and  ennobled.  The  feeling  was  common 
throughout  every  commencement  in  every  college, 
that  no  recognition  could  be  too  honorable  for  those 
who  had  laid  aside  the  academic  gown  and  had  put  on 
the  uniform.  The  following  examples  are  represen- 
tative : — 

At  Knox  College,  those  who  were  in  war  service 
during  the  first  semester,  and  who  returned  and  com- 
pleted satisfactorily  courses  of  not  less  than  fifteen 


24-4      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

hours  each  week  in  the  second  semester,  received 
credit  for  one  year's  work.  Those  who  left  in  the 
second  semester  of  their  Junior  year  received  their 
degrees  the  following  year  upon  completing  fifteen 
hours.  Trinity  shortened  the  Easter  vacation,  placed 
Commencement  later  than  usual,  rushed  the  classes  a 
little  faster  than  usual,  and  endeavored  to  graduate 
with  a  year's  credit  those  who  returned  to  college 
during  the  winter  term,  after  national  service. 
Johns  Hopkins  gave  a  full  year's  credit  to  those  who 
returned  from  the  service  in  the  middle  of  the  year. 
Union  College,  by  starting  new  courses  and  by  ad- 
mitting men  to  classes  for  which  they  were  perhaps 
not  altogether  qualified,  attempted  to  make  it  pos- 
sible for  men  to  get  a  year  of  credit  for  two  terms' 
work. 


XV 


SOME  ENDURING   EFFECTS   OF  THE   WAR   ON   THE   COL- 
LEGES   AND    THE    UNIVERSITIES 

To  write  of  the  enduring  effects  of  the  war  on  the 
colleges  and  the  universities  is  to  lay  aside  in  part  the 
function  of  the  historian  and  to  assume,  in  an  equal 
degree,  the  function  of  the  prophet.  But,  if  one 
were  to  await  the  full  knowledge  of  the  enduring 
effects  of  any  cause  or  force,  in  order  to  write  its  his- 
tory, no  history  would  be  written.  At  the  present 
time,  however,  certain  effects,  which  apparently  are 
to  continue,  have  become  more  or  less  manifest. 

One  effect  which  is  not  occurring,  be  it  first  said, 
relates  to  the  seriousness  of  the  depletion  of  the  forces 
of  educated  American  manhood.  The  number  of 
college  men  killed  is  small  as  compared  to  the  losses 
suffered  by  the  universities  of  Great  Britain  and  of 
France.  Neither  is  the  American  loss  at  all  com- 
parable to  the  losses  suffered  by  the  Southern  States 
in  the  Civil  War.  For  fifty  years,  the  share  of  the 
Southern  people  in  the  development  of  American  so- 
ciety was  unworthy  of  their  earlier  history.     The 

245 


246      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Oreat  War 

natural  leaders  in  the  later  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  while  these  decades  were  passing,  were  rest- 
ing in  thir  gi-aves.  No  similar  condition  will  pre- 
vail in  the  whole  United  States  in  the  middle  decades 
of  the  twentieth  century. 

In  a  further  prefatory  way,  it  should  be  said  that 
two  temporary  results  became  manifest  when  the  col- 
leges opened  their  doors  for  the  first  complete  post- 
war year  of  1919-1920.  The  Freshmen,  who  en- 
tered in  September  of  that  year,  came  up  with  a  less 
adequate  fitness  than  the  beginning  classes  of  preced- 
ing years.  For  the  necessities  which  the  war  laid  on 
high  school  and  academic  students  had  sent  them  out 
from  their  classrooms  onto  the  farms  as  ploughmen 
and  vine  dressers  in  the  foregoing  spring  months. 
They  had  thus  been  allowed  to  shorten  their  prepara- 
tory years  of  study  in  order  to  raise  grain  for  the 
nations.  They  had  also  suffered  an  interruption  of 
their  senior  year  by  reason  of  the  influenza  of  the 
autumn  of  1918.  These  two  conditions  affected  the 
colleges  themselves  no  less  than  the  high  schools. 
The  men  of  the  first  complete  year  following  the  war 
found  the  doing  of  their  college  work  difficult  by  rea- 
son of  inadequate  preparation  and  impaired  physical 
vigor, —  and  this  work  was  not  on  the  whole  well 
done. 

This  scholastic  effect  had  relationship  to  the  morale 


Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  War       247 

of  students  reentering  college:  students,  in  the 
year  following  tlie  war,  were  less  studious.  Their 
studies  made  a  less  strong  appeal  to  them,  and  the 
appeal  was  less  strongly  answered.  For,  while  they 
were  engaged  in  service  over-seas,  they  were  called 
upon  to  be  obedient  soldiers.  Their  wishes  were  not 
consulted.  Their  duties  were  diverse  and  compel- 
ling. Their  wills  and  their  bodies  performed  the 
chief  functions  of  daily  discipline.  Their  intellects 
had  small  share  in  the  concerns  of  the  camp.  The 
return  to  the  college,  therefore,  was  a  return  from 
affairs  volitional  and  physical  to  affairs  intellectual. 
The  return  was  not  an  easy  one  to  make.  The  trans- 
fer of  interest  from  obedient  doing  to  critical,  con- 
sistent, and  continuous  thinking  was  difficult.  The 
result,  in  consequence,  was  general  unrest,  emotional 
dissatisfaction,  and  mental  dissipation.  The  right  to 
complain  against  the  national,  and  to  be  rebellious 
against  the  college,  government  was  recognized  as  al- 
most a  duty !  But,  as  the  college  months  passed,  these 
elements  became  less  evident,  and  in  the  progress  of 
the  year,  they  were  found  to  be  vanishing. 

An  effect,  also,  which  may  not  be  permanent,  but 
which  will  certainly  continue  for  at  least  several 
years,  is  found  in  the  vast  increase  of  students.  The 
increase  is  general,  covering  all  colleges.  It  repre- 
sents an  enlargement  of  numbers  of  about  one-third. 


248      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

ENROLLMENT    FIGUBES    FOB    1919-20,    1918-19,    1916-17 

Name  of  College  1919-20 

Allegheny     515 

Amherst   503 

Bates     472 

Boston  College   700 

Boston  University   5,396 

Bowdoin     453 

Brown     1,295 

Bryn  Mawr   444 

Clark     202 

Colgate     545 

♦  Columbia    15,828 

Connecticut   College    305 

Cornell    5,152 

Dartmouth     1,733 

Depauw    853 

Goucher    783 

Hamilton   299 

Harvard   5,204 

Holy  Cross 702 

Indiana  State 2,347 

Johns  Hopkins   3,200 

Knox 500 

Lafayette   700 

Lehigh    1,100 

Leland  Stanford 2,443 

Mass.   Agricultural    742 

Mass.  Inst,  of  Technology 3,092 

Middlebury    479 

Mt.   Holyoke    815 

New  Hampshire   806 

*  New  York  University 9,695 

Northwestern    5,732 

Norwich   270 

Oberlin   1,535 


1918-19 

1916-17 

571 

395 

387 

505 

402 

473 

591 

675 

3,162 

2,917 

372 

434 

964 

1,140 

472 

447 

203 

153 

371 

581 

9,910 

14,229 

300 

204 

3,480 

4,746 

772 

1,501 

897 

740 

706 

612 

259 

220 

3,894 

5,656 

650 

560 

2,029 

1,131 

1,976 

2,782 

508 

506 

462 

634 

800 

775 

1,507 

2,012 

440 

695 

1,821 

1,957 

386 

372 

874 

824 

607 

666 

5,470 

7,719 

3,693 

5,078 

241 

196 

1,410 

1,496 

Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  War       249 

Name  of  College                        1919-20  1918-19  1916-17 

Pennsylvania  State   3,005  2,496  2,472 

Princeton   1,658  884  1,410 

Radcliffe    625  527  675 

Rhode  Island  State 343  255  336 

Simmons    1,269  1,027  1,088 

Smith     1,998  2,103  1,917 

*  Syracuse    4,800  4,033  4,088 

Trinity   227  282  246 

Tufts 2,003  1,727  1,751 

Univ.  of  California 9,208  6,087  6,467 

Univ.  of  Chicago   4,424  3,387  3,718 

Univ.  of  Illinois     8,076  5,617  7,023 

Univ.  of  Maine    1,193  1,137  1,276 

*  Univ.  of  Michigan    9,800  7,517  6,600 

*  Univ.  of  Pennsylvania 10,321  4,934  8,761 

Univ.  of  Rochester    677  533  509 

Univ.  of  the  South   255  208  188 

Univ.  of  Vermont   844  658  672 

Univ.  oi  Virginia    1,453  957  1,067 

Univ.  of  Washington    5,056  3,352  3,215 

Univ.  of  Wisconsin    6,949  4,413  5,020 

Vassar    1,105  1,120  1,102 

Wellesley   1,526  1,594  1,572 

Western   Reserve    1,925  1,448  1,583 

Williams    555  377  552 

Yale 3,461  3,064  3,262 

Worcester  Polytechnic   567  474  539 

Totals     158,816  111,177  130,630 

*  Includes  summer  school  registration. 

(Boston  Evening  Transcript,  29th  Nov.,   1919;   collected  by 
the  competent  college  editor,  Henry  T.  Claus.) 

The   cause   of   the   increase   was  fourfold.     One 
cause  was  that  many  boys  and  girls  had  been  delayed 


250      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

in  comiug  to  college.  The  war  interrupted  the 
achievement  of  their  educational  purposes.  They 
were  now  able  to  begin  to  realize  an  aim  for  their  edu- 
cation which  would  have  been  realized  in  the  normal 
processes,  two  or  three  years  earlier. 

A  second  cause  lay  in  the  fact  that  money  was 
more  abundant.  Prices  had  vastly  increased.  But 
the  college  fees  had,  in  certain  colleges,  not  at  all  in- 
creased, and  in  others  seldom  more  than  twenty-five 
per  cent.  In  relation  to  other  values,  the  cost  of 
education  was  and  is  the  lowest  of  all  utilities.  It  is 
the  only  instance  in  modern  life  in  which  one  is  re- 
ceiving many  fold  more  than  the  expenditure. 

The  third  reason  of  the  increase  lay  in  the  great 
service  which  the  colleges  rendered  in  the  war.  This 
service  touched  every  interest  of  modern  life.  The 
loyalty  of  students  and  graduates,  a  mighty  sense  of 
unity  and  fellowship,  the  outpouring  of  vast  enthusi- 
asms, devotion  to  duty,  represent  the  normal  results 
of  academic  training.  These  results  have  had  a  mov- 
ing influence  upon  the  community.  The  younger 
boys  and  girls  wanted  to  enter  into  such  a  life. 

The  fourth  cause  was  found  in  the  fact  that  men's 
minds  had  been  impressed  with  the  worthiness  of 
things  intellectual  and  spiritual.  They  had  learned 
that  these  are  the  eternal  values.  They  had  also 
learned  that  the  things  seen  are  material  and  that 


Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  War       251 

these  things  are  temporal.  They  were  eager  in  their 
idealism  to  possess  the  enduring  values. 

A  further  result,  rather  circumstantial  than  es- 
sential, which  gave  and  gives  lasting  assurance  to 
the  friends  of  higher  education,  was  found  in  the 
new  evidence  offered  by  the  war  of  the  worthiness 
of  the  American  university  and  college.  The  Mid- 
dle Ages  gave  to  the  modern  world,  either  as  original 
or  mediating  forces,  three  institutions : —  the  Em- 
pire, the  Papacy,  and  the  University.  The  Empire 
was  finally  dissolved  by  I^apoleon.  The  Papacy  en- 
dures, yet  shorn  of  much  of  its  political  power  and 
prestige.  The  University  alone  comes  forth,  with 
each  succeeding  decade,  with  power  increased  and 
prestige  augmented.  The  university  has  not  only 
proved  to  be  humanistic,  but,  what  is  far  more  im- 
portant, human.  It  is  patriotic  and  interpatriotic, 
national  and  international.  Its  teachers  are  not  re- 
mote from  human  concerns.  They  are  easily  respon- 
sive to  all  human  ideals.  Its  students  are  kindled, 
by  simple  words  and  deeds,  unto  flaming  devotions. 

The  war  also  gave  a  higher  appreciation  of  that 
simple  but  fundamental  element,  the  value  of  phys- 
ical health.  The  returned  soldier  student  returned 
carrying  a  more  vigorous  body.  His  manlier  bear- 
ing, his  fuller  chest,  his  larger  and  harder  muscles, 
his  clearer  eye,  his  greater  robustness,   proved,   aa 


252      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

these  qualities  themselves  manifested,  his  firm  and 
nsnally  firmer  health.  These  results  were  the  nor- 
mal effects  of  regular  life,  lived  under  proper  disci- 
pline in  the  open.  These  results  were,  according  to 
the  military  commander,  necessary  causes  and  forces 
for  the  carrying  forward  of  the  normal  movements 
of  warfare.  The  hospital  is  not  a  tool  of  aggressive 
conflict.  The  soldier  learned  that  about  one-third  of 
all  drafted  men  were  rejected  by  reason  of  physical 
deformities  or  deficiencies.  He  learned  also  the  un- 
speakable peril  and  penalties  of  venereal  disease. 
Out  of  all  these  diverse  conditions  and  causes,  the 
student,  coming  from  the  ranks,  came  to  the  college 
bearing  in  his  body  an  illustration  of  the  value  of 
health  which  gave  silent  and  impressive  lessons  to 
all  his  associates. 

Closely  associated  with  the  resulting  appreciation 
of  the  value  of  good  health  was  the  element  of  mili- 
tary training  in  the  colleges.  ^lany  college  ofiicers 
and  college  students  who  were  engaged  in  the  service 
in  France,  and  college  graduates  who  did  or  who  did 
not  go  over-seas,  have,  as  a  result  of  the  training  of 
and  in  and  for  the  war,  come  to  hold  opinions  opposed 
to  military  training  as  a  constituent  part  of  the  col- 
lege course.  It  was  and  is  recognized  by  all  that  mil- 
itary training  in  the  college  may  represent  a  certain 
cooperative   citizenship.     It    also    represents    obedi- 


Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  TVar       253 

ence,  which  is  the  first  duty  of  the  soldier  aud,  in  cer- 
tain respects,  the  first  duty  of  the  student.  It  stands 
also  for  the  control  of  appetites  and  the  curbing  of 
passion.  It  does,  or  should,  mean  the  eliminating  or 
the  curing  of  obscure  physical  weaknesses  and  the 
promotion  of  physical  strength.  Properly  pursued, 
it  might  help  to  form  permanent  habits  of  good  phys- 
ical exercise.  It  also  embodies  the  progressive  ele- 
ment in  such  exercise;  for  military  training  passes 
on  from  the  simple  to  the  less  simple,  from  the  less 
simple  to  the  complex,  and  from  the  complex  to  the 
more  complex. 

But  also  it  has  been  recognized  that  military  train- 
ing in  the  college  is  not  usually  interesting.  To  the 
Freshmen  it  may  have  some  fascination.  It  is  new 
and  pulsates  with  a  touch  of  the  world  of  vision  and 
of  glory.  But,  as  the  months  or  the  years  pass,  its 
interest  vanishes.  The  students  of  one  college  peti- 
tioned for  a  military  training  course  to  be  intro- 
duced. Within  less  than  twelve  months,  not  less 
than  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  enrollment  peti- 
tioned for  its  abolition.  Most  students  are  rebellious 
against  accepting  it  as  a  required  academic  course. 
In  its  lack  of  interest,  it  is  not  so  recreative  as  it 
should  be,  and  whatever  recreation  it  does  possess 
is  rather  of  a  stilted  and  mechanical  form,  without 
imagination   or  a  sense  of  fun.     It  has   also  been 


254:      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

proved  that  it  is  difficult  to  fit  it  into  the  other  ele- 
ments of  the  curriculum.  Evidence  is  not  lacking 
that  it  does  not  adjust  itself  so  well  to  the  physical 
and  other  needs  of  the  student  as  a  more  diversified 
form  of  exercise.  Variations  from  its  standards  are 
few  and  infrequent.  The  attempts,  therefore,  made 
to  establish  the  Reserve  Ofiicers'  Training  Corps  in 
the  colleges  have  not  met  with  a  general  degree  of  suc- 
cess. The  spirit  of  rebelliousness  to  it  is  not  quite  so 
marked  as  the  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  more 
ordinary  type  of  military  training.  But  the 
rebelliousness  is  still  marked.  It  has  come  to 
be  felt  by  many  college  officers  that  the  best  prep- 
aration for  the  service  of  a  soldier  consists  in  giving 
him  a  strong,  vigorous  body,  facile  and  forceful, 
united  with  a  strong,  vigorous  mind,  also  facile  and 
forceful.  Such  a  body  and  such  a  mind  united  in 
one  person,  distinguished  military  officers  say,  can  be 
formed,  in  the  course  of  a  brief  time,  into  the  stuff 
for  a  good  soldier,  and  even  into  first-rate  material 
for  service  as  an  officer. 

A  further  effect  was  manifest  in  the  greater  seri- 
ousness pervading  the  ranks  of  students.  The  play 
element  was  lessened.  Silly  self-indulgence  was 
curbed.  The  religious  service  of  the  college  chapel 
commanded  fuller  attendance,  closer  attention,  and 
an  attitude  of  deeper  worship.     Snap  courses  became 


Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  War        255 

less  popular.  Studies  that  serve  well  in  life's  strug- 
gles were  more  generally  elected.  Teachers  who  in- 
spire and  quicken  were  more  constantly  sought.  The 
presence  of  the  soldier,  wounded  or  unwounded,  con- 
tributed to  this  result.  The  man  on  crutches,  with  a 
happy  face  peering  up  and  out  between  the  bars,  and 
the  man  who  had  been  gassed,  with  a  face  worn,  thin, 
pale,  greatly  added  to  this  feeling  of  seriousness. 

This  feeling  of  seriousness  arose  in  part  from  a 
broader  and  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Euro- 
pean world.  To  the  men  who  had  been  in  Europe  in 
the  wartime,  history  was  made  more  vital,  America 
is  a  new  country,  and  Americans  do  not  possess  the 
long  and  rich  historic  background.  Their  conditions 
necessitate  such  ignorance.  Living  for  months,  or 
years,  in  France  serves  to  impress  upon  a  man  of  the 
new  world,  the  significance  of  a  long  historic  yester- 
day. The  present  American  conditions  also  became 
through  foreign  residence  more  visible  and  more  im- 
pressive. Problems,  national,  international,  individ- 
ual, were  seen  more  clearly  in  their  outlines  and  con- 
tent. Under  such  conditions,  the  returned  soldier 
student  inevitably  became  more  serious  in  thought 
and  feeling. 

This  academic  effect  had  relation  to  a  further  re- 
sult. It  was  the  result  of  the  acceptance  on  tlio  part 
of  the  students  of  a  deeper  responsibility  for  the  com- 


25(1      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

mimity.  The  college  man  came  to  know  that  he 
should  assume, —  always,  of  course,  in  humility, — 
the  spirit  of  leadership  of  the  community.  His 
power  of  insight  into  conditions  is  keener  and 
broader,  his  appreciation  of  the  worth  of  the  forces 
of  the  commonwealth  is  more  adequate,  and  his  abil- 
ity to  apply  these  forces  is  greater,  than  belong  to  the 
ordinary  membership.  Such  conditions  were  es- 
pecially strong  in  the  years  following  the  war. 

The  enhanced  appreciation,  which  the  community 
gained,  of  the  higher  education  was  also  the  result  of 
a  deeper  appreciation  of  themselves  by  the  colleges. 
Colleges  are  alw^ays  responsive  to  the  feelings  and 
judgments  of  the  community  to  a  degree  which 
neither  the  college  nor  the  community  realizes.  The 
colleges  learned,  through  the  war,  that  the  education 
they  offer  is  worthy  of  humanity,  that  the  disciplined 
mind  which  they  create  by  a  formal  training  is  the 
most  effective  force  in  the  world,  and  that  the  rich 
and  full-orbed  character  which  they  foster  is  the  best 
product  of  civilization.  The  war,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, increased  the  stipends  of  the  college  teacher. 
But  this  result  was  of  no  worth  in  comparison  with 
the  ennobled  self-confidence,  always  humble  and  sel- 
dom arrogant,  which  the  American  university  and 
college  came  to  possess. 

A  further  effect  concerns  the  permanent  condition 


Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  War       257 

of  the  humanities  as  a  subject  of  studj.  It  is  the  so- 
cial humanities  which  have  become  more  securely  es- 
tablished in  the  academic  curriculum.  The  antique 
humanities  have  suffered  a  constant  elimination. 
The  natural  and  physical  sciences,  despite  the  high 
and  useful  function  they  filled  in  the  war,  have  not 
gained  in  subsequent  popularity  or  influence.  The 
philosophical  and  psychological  courses,  notwith- 
standing the  value  of  psychology  in  the  waging  of  the 
war  and  in  removing  certain  resulting  distress,  have 
likewise  not  secured  a  more  commanding  following. 
But  the  studies,  called  social,  dealing  with  men  in 
relation  to  each  other, —  history,  economics,  govern- 
ment, political  science,  sociology', —  have  been  lifted 
to  places  higher  and  broader  in  the  academic  order. 
The  students  elected,  and  still  elect,  such  courses 
more  fully;  and  to  teachers  of  such  courses  students 
were,  and  are,  inclined  to  pay  a  more  loyal  loyalty. 
The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  In  the  war  men  learned 
that  the  relations  of  men  to  each  other  are  the  chief  re- 
lations. If  men  are  enemies,  enemies  should  be  in- 
telligently understood.  Opposing  points  of  view 
should  be  examined,  and  the  grounds  of  antagonism 
carefully  weighed.  If  men  are  friends  and  co-work- 
ers,—  political,  commercial,  industrial, —  their  mu- 
tual rights  and  duties,  activities  and  conditions, 
should  be  recognized  and  considered.     At  all  events, 


258      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

men  are  citizens,  and  all  relations  to  one's  nation  are 
of  compollino:  significance.  Moreover,  each  nation 
bears  relationships  to  other  nations,  and  therefore  the 
facts  of  international  history,  the  doctrine  of  ex- 
changes, financial  and  of  commodities,  diplomatic 
and  consular  arrangements  and  adjustments,  are  all 
quickening  influences  upon  the  academic  mind.  The 
student  vision,  therefore,  has  come  to  see  beyond  the 
college  walls,  even  if  one  stands  on  their  top.  The 
students  have  come  to  feel  the  world's  throbs  and  in- 
terests, and  these  interests  influence  them  to  select 
those  subjects  of  study  which  touch,  more  and  most 
directly,  upon  those  interests. 

Of  course,  such  directness  of  topic  and  immediacy 
of  metliod  involve  a  certain  intellectual  loss.  The 
loss  is  a  lessened  sense  of  intellectual  relationships. 
The  loss  means  a  thinner  background,  a  shallower  re- 
flectiveness, a  narrower  perspective  and  outlook. 
The  loss  is  a  loss  in  culture,  in  appreciation  of  general 
values,  in  depths  and  richness  of  thinking  and  feel- 
ing. But,  along  with  the  loss  runs  a  gain,  a  gain  in 
directness  and  in  eflSciency,  in  pursuit  of  ends,  an  ef- 
ficiency which,  in  a  world  of  service  and  in  a  lifetime 
whose  working  period  is  so  brief,  is  of  unspeakable 
preciousness. 

I  also  believe  that  the  war  gave  to  the  university 
student  and  teacher  a  deeper  desire  to  use  his  learn- 


Some  Enduring  Effects  of  the  War       259 

ing  and  his  lecturing  for  the  public  welfare.  A 
stronger  and  deeper  altruistic  note  was  heard  in  the 
academic  song.  Of  course  universities  have  always 
been  devoted  to  the  service  of  their  nations,  be  the 
government  of  a  particular  nation  monarchical  or 
democratic.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  kings  found  their 
ministers  of  state  and  their  diplomats  among  the 
university-trained  graduates.  The  newer  democratic 
communities  have  usually  called  to  their  offices, — 
legislative,  executive,  judicial, —  men  of  academic 
training.  The  modern  record  is  of  a  significance 
even  more  commanding  than  the  mediaeval.  The 
American  student  and  teacher,  therefore,  have  become 
impressed  in  a  peculiar  way  with  the  duty  they  owe 
to  the  mind  and  the  movements  of  their  own  genera- 
tion outside  of  academic  gateways.  The  obligation 
of  the  stronger  to  help  the  weaker,  the  value  of  unity 
of  thought,  of  feeling,  of  action,  the  appreciation  of 
individual  and  corporate  sympathy,  the  worth  of  loy- 
alty to  great  ideas,  the  missionary  motive  as  applied  to 
intellectual  forces,  have  become  common  sentiments 
of  mighty  motive  and  movement.  The  student  as- 
sents to  the  truth  of  Huxley's  remark,  "  So  far  as 
we  possess  the  power  of  bettering  things,  it  is  our 
permanent  duty  to  use  it,  and  to  train  all  our  intel- 
lect and  energy  for  this  supreme  service  to  our  kind." 
Institutions  change  slowly.     That  mediaeval  and 


2G0      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

modenx  institution,  the  university,  with  the  church, 
is  the  most  conservative  of  all  the  gTcat  foundations 
made  by  the  mind  of  man.  The  students  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  in  the  American  institution  are  singu- 
larly akin  to  the  students  of  the  fifteenth  century  in 
Oxford  and  Leipsic.  But,  although  changing  slowly, 
and  by  slight  degrees,  the  academic  mind  does  change. 
The  results  I  have  noted  are  already  beginning  to 
affect  the  body  of  the  students  and  the  movements  of 
academic  life.  It  now  seems  probable  that  these  re- 
sults will  endure  among  the  students  of  many  follow- 
ing; venerations. 


XVI 

ACADEMIC    MEMORIALS 

In  the  funeral  oration  which  Thucydides  puts  into 
the  mouth  of  Pericles,  at  the  close  of  the  first  year 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  great  statesman  and 
orator  says: 

"  For  the  whole  earth  is  the  sepulchre  of  famous 
men;  not  only  are  they  commemorated  by  columns 
and  inscriptions  in  their  own  country,  but  in  foreign 
lands  there  dwells  also  an  unwritten  memorial  of 
them,  graven  not  on  stone  but  in  the  hearts  of  men."  ^ 

The  sentiments  expressed  in  Greece,  twenty-three 
hundred  years  and  more  ago,  are  felt  likewise  in 
America  in  the  year  1920.  The  whole  earth  is  filled 
with  memorials  of  our  college  boys.  But,  in  addi- 
tion, it  is  fitting,  natural,  and  almost  commanding  to 
the  soul,  that  individual  memorials  be  raised. 

Commemorative  accounts,  events,  tokens,  tablets, 
medals,  foundations,  buildings  are  a  normal  and  nat- 
ural consequence  of  noble  achievements.  The  found- 
ing of  a  memorial  in  recognition  of  great  deeds  is  al- 
most instinctive  to  man.     The  desire  seems  to  belong 

1  Thucydides'  History,  Jowett's  translation,  I.   133. 
201 


202      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

to  the  early  impulses  of  the  race,  as  is  witnessed  in  the 
Ciiims  on  the  lonely  mountain  peak  where  a  hero  did 
a  brave  deed.  Civilization  has  not  eliminated  this 
primitive  instinct,  but  has  rather  seemed  to  augment 
and  to  discipline  it. 

An  academic  memorial,  like  every  other,  should  ap- 
peal to  the  sense  of  idealism  in  humanity.  It  should 
touch  the  imagination,  move  the  sense  of  the  poetic, 
and  incarnate  in  the  visible  and  the  tangible  the 
highest  aspirations  of  the  human  spirit.  It  should 
create  a  certain  solidity  of  thrilling  impulses,  which 
it  should  elevate  and  broaden  and  deepen.  Every 
noble  feeling  should  be  stirred  by  its  vision  or  recol- 
lection. It  should  be  a  permanent  festival  of  the 
dead.  It  should  with  ever  increasing  force  appeal 
to  the  eternal  and  the  universal  in  the  human  soul. 
In  it  the  elements  of  a  materialistic  utility  should 
be  given  little  or  no  place.  It  may  help  man  to  do 
his  daily  work  more  thoroughly,  to  bear  his  anxiety 
more  calmly,  to  fulfill  life's  functions  more  com- 
pletely. But  these  results  it  wins  by  its  appeal  to 
the  highest  and  the  lordliest  and  the  divine  in  his  be- 
ing. A  worthy  memorial  is  still  the  sky  and  the  star 
and  the  far-off  sun  in  man's  character  and  life.  It 
is  still  the  token,  the  evidence,  the  proof  of  the  etern- 
ally free  spirit  in  man  as  the  child  of  the  universal 
and  the  everlasting. 


Academic  Memorials  263 

Such  should  be  the  characteristics  of  every  me- 
morial. In  particular  a  college  memorial  should  pos- 
sess them  in  fullest  degree.  For  it  is  for  such  ideals 
that  the  college  youth  died.  These  ideals  are  the 
highest.  They  embody  not  simply  a  national  pur- 
pose, but  rather  one  international,  and  not  simply  an 
international  one,  but  rather  that  power  which  un- 
derlies humanity.  Divinity. 

Memorials  have,  for  more  than  two  thousand  years, 
taken  on  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Pericles  rebuilt 
parts  of  Athens  as  a  memorial  of  the  Persian  Wars. 
The  city  of  Alexandria  forever  commemorates  a 
world-conqueror.  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  still 
stands  a  token  of  the  victory  of  the  cross.  Through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  abbeys  were  founded  as  memor- 
ials, and  likewise  in  the  Renaissance  period,  colleges 
and  schools.  Within  the  last  hundred  years,  Water- 
loo Bridge  and  the  iSTelson  Column  of  London  bear 
their  own  commemorative  purpose. 

Among  other  great  memorials  in  material  form  are 
the  Taj  Mahal,  the  Arch  of  Triumph  in  Paris,  Tra- 
jan's Arch,  the  Victor  Emmanuel  pile  in  Rome,  the 
Washington  Monument  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac, 
and  the  Robert  Gould  Shaw  tablet  on  Boston  Com- 
mon. Similar  forms  in  marble  or  stone  or  bronze, 
college  memorials  might  fittingly  assume.  Of  these 
memorials  the  Robert  Gould  Shaw  bronze  has  the 


2G-i      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

dearest  meaning  to  the  heart  of  the  college  youth.  It 
is  in  a  sense  a  college  emblem.  If  only  such  a  tablet 
could  be  set  up  on  every  college  campus !  But  a  like 
memorial,  though  of  quite  unlike  esthetic  conception 
or  execution,  might  have  a  quickening  meaning.  For 
throughout  the  villages  of  many  an  American  state, 
on  common,  or  on  public  square  is  erected  a  simple 
figure  in  granite  of  the  American  soldier  of  the  Civil 
War.  His  clothes  do  not  fit  him.  The  expression  of 
his  face  is  stolid.  His  poise  is  neither  civil  nor  mili- 
tary. On  the  foundation  stone  or  on  the  sides  of  the 
column  are  cut  his  name  and  the  names  of  his  fallen 
comrades.  Gettysburg,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg 
are  also  inscribed.  Despite  its  lacks  and  incongrui- 
ties, it  is  always  moving  to  the  mind  and  the  heart  of 
the  beholder.  Such  a  figure  set  up  in  bronze  or  mar- 
ble in  college  halls  or  on  college  grounds  is  a  fitting 
memorial. 

Buildings  may  also  form  a  memorial  likewise  fit- 
ting. But  in  academic  buildings  imagination  should 
ever  be  given  full  freedom.  To  the  college  men 
fallen  in  the  Civil  War  are  erected  several  memorials 
of  this  type.  Conspicuous  among  them  are  the  Me- 
morial Hall  at  Chapel  Hill,  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  the  Memorial  Hall  at  Bowdoin,  and 
the  memorial  part  of  a  great  hall  at  Harvard.  Build- 
ings are  sure  to  be  built  in  scores  of  colleges,  com- 


Academic  Memorials  265 

memorative  of  the  men  fallen  in  the  Great  War. 

Gateways  form  also  a  most  fitting  type.  They 
largely  eliminate  by  their  very  condition,  the  element 
of  materialistic  utility.  Already  several  college 
classes  have  considered  the  building  of  such  a  me- 
morial to  their  unreturning  members  and  in  apprecia- 
tion of  the  service  of  all  of  their  members. 

Three  outstanding  athletic  captains  of  Yale  lost 
their  lives  in  the  war.  It  has  been  proposed  to  asso- 
ciate their  names  with  the  Bowl,  and  other  athletic 
structures.  Such  association  is  more  fitting  than  a 
superficial  interpretation  might  suggest.  For  the 
men,  trained  in  the  academic  sports,  through  that 
very  training,  were  made  more  efiicient  in  the  war. 
Discipline,  intellectual  and  ethical,  power  of  initia- 
tive, team-work,  are  the  qualities  alike  valuable  in  the 
sports,  in  the  service  and  in  life. 

But  beyond  and  above  such  physical  forms,  com- 
memorative foundations  in  gifts  of  funds  or  of  li- 
braries have  peculiar  significance.  Professorships, 
scholarships,  lectureships,  each  devoted  to  the  pur- 
poses held  dear  by  those  who  died,  are  fitting.  They 
touch  the  imagination.  They  serve  by  their  teaching 
to  elevate  the  mind,  to  purify  the  heart,  to  give  a 
sense  of  grandeur  and  sublimity  to  man's  highest 
choices.  They  also  endure,  as  the  college  itself  is 
among  the  most  enduring  of  the  creations  of  man. 


266     Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Buildings  may  cruiiible  and  must,  but  the  immate- 
rial foundation  standeth  sure.  Already  such  me- 
morial foundations  are  being  laid. 

A  Harvard  man,  of  the  class  of  1919,  who  was 
mortally  wounded  in  1918,  has  been  commemorated 
by  a  scholarship  founded  by  his  family  in  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  which  is  to  be  held  by  an  Amer- 
ican student  nominated  by  the  President  and  Fel- 
lows of  Harvard.  A  scholarship  also  in  his  honor 
has  been  established  at  Harvard  which  is  to  be 
awarded  to  a  student  from  France.  Another  father 
has  given  a  scholarship  in  memory  of  his  son,  Wil- 
liam H.  Meeker,  of  the  class  of  1917  of  Harvard, 
killed  in  France,  and  has  also  given  his  son's  library 
to  the  Harvard  Crimson.  The  gift  of  the  library 
is  carrying  out  one  of  the  last  wishes  of  the  boy,  that 
if  anything  should  happen  to  him  while  in  France, 
his  library  should  be  given  to  the  college  in  which  he 
had  been  enrolled.  The  University  of  Toronto  has 
raised  a  large  sum  for  commemorative  scholarships. 
Princeton  has  already  founded  ten  such  scholarships. 
Similar  memorials  have  been  established  in  other 
colleges  and  will  continue  to  be  founded  for  the  next 
decade. 

Beneath  the  material  form  and  the  immaterial  of 
memorials  may  lie  certain  natural  associations.  A 
row  or  a  group  of  trees  illustrates  and  embodies  such 


Academic  Memorials  267 

a  commemoration.  Xew  Hampshire  College  at  Dur- 
ham has  planted  a  grove  of  trees  in  honor  of  eigh- 
teen of  her  graduates  who  fell. 

Many  memorials,  as  these  paragraphs  intimate, 
have  been  established  by  the  parents  of  the  dead  stu- 
dent soldiers.  Their  foundation  will  yet  go  on  for 
generations.  Be  it  said  that  the  mothers  and 
fathers  have  borne,  and  still  bear,  and  will  continue 
to  bear,  their  griefs  with  a  sense  of  bravery  equal  to 
that  of  their  fallen  sons.  They  have  learned  the  les- 
son which  Professor  Poulton,  of  Oxford,  learned  in 
the  death  of  his  son,  Ronald,  that  "  to  be  weakened 
by  grief  is  the  poorest  tribute  to  our  dear  ones,  and 
that  it  might  be  so  is  the  thought  that  would  have 
pained  them  most.  '  At  the  time  of  Ronald's  death  I 
was  numb  with  despair  until,  in  a  few  days,  this 
thought  arase  in  my  mind,  and  since  then  the  comfort 
of  it  has  never  failed  me ;  if  any  there  be  who  have 
not  yet  found  it,  I  am  sure  it  will  never  fail  them.'  "  ^ 

A  distinct  form  of  memorial  for  the  living,  as  well 
as  for  the  dead,  was  created  by  Williams  College.  It 
consisted  of  what  is  known  as  "  The  Williams 
Medal."  The  obverse  of  the  bronze  shows  "  a  line 
of  steel-helmeted  doughboys,  rifles  in  hand,  with  bay- 
onets fixed,  about  to  go  over  the  top."  The  reverse 
is  an  imaginary  portrait  of  the  founder  of  the  college, 
iThe  British  Weekly,  December  25,  1919. 


2G8      Colleges  and  Universities  in  the  Great  War 

Colonel  Ephraim  Williams,  on  horseback,  wearing 
the  nniform  of  a  continental  officer.  The  legend, 
"  For  humanity  1918,"  appears  on  the  obverse  side, 
and  the  legend,  "  E  Liberalitate  E  Williams  Armi- 
geri  1793,"  is  on  the  upper  circumference  of  the  re- 
verse. Wesleyan  University  and  Union  have  also 
given  similar  tokens  to  their  sons. 

These  and  other  forms,  college  memorials  are  to 
take  on  in  the  next  years.  Whatever  special  shape 
they  assume  they  will  embody  the  spirit  which  stirred 
the  soul  of  the  soldier  student  who  went  forth  pre- 
pared to  die.  The  spirit  has  been  movingly  set  forth 
in  many  a  poem  and  noble  paragraph.  But  in  no 
verse  written  by  college  man  for  college  man  has  the 
spirit  been  more  fittingly  embodied  than  the  verses 
which  Lieutenant  White  wrote  of  his  Bowdoin  friend, 
Forbes  Rickard,  Jr.,  who  was  killed  in  action  in  the 
summer  of  1918. 

"  For  firelight,  and  true  books  and  candle-glow. 
And  dear  imagination  that  can  find 
Behind  the  present  and  the  passing  hour 
The  plan  of  One  who  has  the  will  to  grow 
Upon  the  frailest  stock,  the  fairest  flower  — 
And  let  it  wither  in  a  wintry  wind ; 

"  For  that  warm  friendliness  of  soul's  embrace 
When  man  meets  man  and  knows  him  for  a  friend; 
For  all  the  little  signs  which  must  betray 
Man's  loyalty  to  love  —  for  all  the  grace 


Academic  Memorials  269 

Of  Beauty  whicli  adorned  his  dawning  day. 
He  battled  with  clean  heart  until  the  end. 

"  For  these  he  fought  —  for  love  of  life  he  died, 
A  willing  sacrifice  to  that  High  Faith 
Which  bade  him  gird  the  young  man's  armor  on 
And  fling  the  shining  truth  at  those  who  lied  — 
Boasting  that  Power  was  Eight  —  that  that  new  dawn 
Which  reddened  in  the  sky  was  but  a  wraith. 

"  He  is  a  part  of  all  he  fought  to  save  — 
And  he  has  lent  his  soul  to  every  breeze 
That  cools  the  brow  of  Vision  —  seeing  folk, 
And  passing,  sings  of  Hope,  *  Be  strong,  be  brave, 
The  new  day  dawns  behind  the  tyrant's  cloak  — 
Lo,  Freedom  rises  from  the  misty  seas ! ' "  i 

1  Poem  by  Lieutenant  H.  S.  WTiite,  A.  E.  F.,  as  a  tribute  to 
Fgrbes  Rickard,  Jr.,  killed  in  action  July,  1918. 


INDEX 


Age  of  students,  1-2. 

Agriculture,  service  of,  137  S. 

Alma  College,  enrollment  and 
casualties,   217. 

American  iCouncil  on  Educa- 
tion, 28  S. 

American  Distributing  Serv- 
ice, 19. 

American  University  in 
France,  197  flf. 

American  University  Union, 
195  ff. 

American  Volunteer  Motor 
Ambulance  Corps,  15  ff. 

Ames,  Professor  J.  S.,  quota- 
tion from,  121-22. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  allusion  to, 
152. 

Association  of  Collegiate 
Alumnae,  allusion  to, 
144. 

Athens,  University  of,  rector 
of,   and   Bulgarians,    192. 

Baker,  Secretary,  quotations 
from,  33  ff.,  83-84. 

Baldwin-Wallace  College,  al- 
lusion to,  97. 

Barker,  Ernest,  quotations 
from,  12,  162-03. 

Benson,  A.  C,  quotation  from, 
224-25. 

Bernsdorf,  degree  of,  with- 
drawn. 242-43. 

Bowdoin  CoUogo,  enrollment 
and  casualties,  219.  , 


British     University    Mission, 

188  ff. 
Brooke,    Rupert,    sonnets    of, 

171  ff. 
Brown  University,  enrollment 

and  casualties,  217. 
in  the  war,  219. 
Bryn  Mawr   College,   allusion 

to,  144. 
Bushnell,    Edward,    poem    of, 

100-101. 
Butler,    N.    ^^.,    on    German 

professors'  letter.  193-94. 
Butterfield,    Kenyon    L.,    and 

the  American   University 

in  France,   197  ff. 
quotation  from,  199-200. 


California,  University  of,  en- 
rollment   and    casualties, 
218. 
honors     for     students     of, 
220  ff. 

Capen,    I>r.,    quotation    from, 
189. 

Cestre,     Professor,    quotation 
from,  186-87. 

rhaplaina,  army,  153  ff. 

Chapman,  Victor,  nlluKion  to, 
20. 

Chemistry  in  war,  llSff. 

Civil    war,    world    war,    losses 
in,  contrasts  of,  223-24. 

College     ofTicers      in     service, 
92  ff. 


271 


272 


Index 


Collffies,     financial     relations 
of,  40(1". 
income  of,  40  ff. 

Columbia    University,    enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  214. 

Commencements    of    the    war 
period,  231  fl". 

Commissioner    of    Education, 
circular   from,   66-67. 

Conklin,     S.     L.,     quotations 
from,  176  AT. 

Continental     Hall     Congress, 

26  fr. 

Cooperation       of       scientists, 

117  ff. 
Copeland,     C.     T.,     letter    to, 

109  ff. 
Cox,     S.     Donald,     quotation 

from,  170. 
Crile,    Dr.    G.    W.,    quotation 

from,  131. 

Dartmouth      College,      enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  217. 

Degrees    given    at    war    com- 
mencements, 241  ff. 

Democracy,  in  army,  101  ff. 
of  students,  2  ff. 
of    war    and    of    education 
alike,  5-6. 

Dennys,    R.,    quotation    from, 
170. 

Dickinson  College,  enrollment 
and  casualties,  215. 

Education,  worth  of,  88-89. 
Effects    of    war    on    colleges, 

245  ff. 
Eliot,      President,      quotation 

from,  8-9. 
Ellis,    William    T.,    quotation 

from,  157  ff. 


English  poetry,  168  ff. 

Enrollment  of  students,  46  ff., 
85  ff. 

Erskine,  John,  and  the  Ameri- 
can University  in  France, 
197  ff. 

Fatigue,  industrial,  130-31. 

Faunce,  President,  quotation 
from,   219. 

Federal,  Board  for  Vocational 
Education,   28. 
government  and   the   S.   A. 
T.  C,   60-61. 

Financial  Relations  of  Col- 
leges, 40  ff. 

Fisk  University,  enrollment 
and   casualties,   218. 

Fordham  University,  enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  214. 

Foreign  Legion  of  French 
Army,  19  ff. 

Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 
lege, enrollment  and  cas- 
ualties,  215. 

French,       policy      concerning 
study  of  German,  183  ff. 
students    in    American    col- 
leges, 185  ff. 
universities    and    the    war, 
228. 

Gains  of  the  S.  A.  T.  C,  72  ff. 

Geographers  in  war,  124  ff. 

Geologists  in  war,  124  ff. 

Georgia,  University  of,  en- 
rollment and  casualties, 
219. 

German,     language,     lessened 
study  of,  181. 
professors'    letter    of    1914, 
193. 


Index 


2Y3 


Gordon,    George    A.,    remarks 

of,  at  Harvard,  234  ff. 
Graham,    of    North    Carolina 

University,     allusion     to, 

110-11. 
Graham,   Stephen,   quotations 

from,  154-55. 
Graham,  Walter,  allusion  to, 

170-71. 


Hadley,  President,  remarks  of, 
236  ff. 

Hamilton  Collejze,  enrollment 
and  casualties,  214. 

Hardy,  Thomas,  allusion  to, 
171. 

Harvard   University,   allusion 
to,  207-10. 
enrollment    and    casualties, 

214. 
Medical  School,  allusion  to, 

18. 
memorials,  266. 

Herbert,  George,  allusion  to, 
169. 

Holmes,  0.  W.,  quotation 
from,  .3-4. 

Hoover,  Herbert,  remarks  of, 
at  Harvard,  233  ff. 
service  of,  21-23. 

Hope  College,  enrollment  and 
casualties,  217. 

Houston,  Secretary,  quota- 
tions from,  137  fT. 

Hughes,  Charles  E.,  at  Cor- 
nell commencement,  240. 

Hulme,  \V.  H.,  on  scholarship 
as  an  international  tie, 
206-07. 

Hyde,  Professor  J.  E.,  allu- 
sion to,  125. 


Illinois,  University  of,  enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  217. 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University, 
enrollment  and  ciisualties, 
217. 

Income  of  colleges,   40  ff. 

Industrial  fatigue,  130-31. 

Intercollegiate  Intelligence 
Bureau,  24  ff. 

International  relations,  180  ff. 

Interpatriotism  of  students, 
8-9. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  en- 
rollment and  casualties, 
216. 

Kalamazoo  College,  enroll- 
ment and  casualties.  217. 

Kelman,  Dr.  John,  quotation 
from,    164-65. 

Keppel,  Dean,  remarks  of,  at 
^lichigan,  238  ff. 

Kipling,  allusion  to,  175. 

Knights  of  Columbus,  153  ff. 

Kilrner,  allusion  to,    171. 

Lafayett(>  College,  ciirolluu'iit 
and  casualties,  215. 

Lake  Forest  College,  enroll- 
ment and  casiuilties,  217. 

Lake,  Professor  K.,  quotation 
from,    180. 

Lawrence  College,  eiirollinciit 
aiul  casualties,  218. 

Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Univer- 
sity, enrollment  and  cas- 
uaities,  2 IS. 

Jjetts,   Spires  of  Oxford,   7-8. 

Losses  of  S.  A.  T.  C,  78  ff. 

Lowell,  Commemoration  Ode, 
allusion  to,  8. 


274 


Index 


Mackintosh,  quotation  from, 
170. 

Mass.  Agricultural  College, 
enrollment  and  casual- 
ties, 214. 

Mass.  Institute  of  Technology, 
quotation  from  professor 
in,  95-96. 

McClellan,     Dean,     quotation 
from,   24. 
service  of,  24. 

McCracken,  President,  of  Vas- 
sar  College,  quotation 
from,  149. 

Medical  fatigue,  130-31. 
schools  in  war,  126  ff. 
defects  of,   131-32. 

Memorials,  academic,  261  fF. 

Metcalf,  W.  V.,  quotation 
from,  96. 

Miami  University,  enrollment 
and  casualties.  215. 

Michigan,    Agricultural    Col- 
lege, enrollment  and  cas- 
ualties, 216. 
University     of,     enrollment 
and  casualties,  216. 

ifidlands  universities  and  the 
war,  227. 

Military  training  in  colleges, 
252  flF. 

Motives  of  students  for  enter- 
ing service,  1  ff. 

Mt.  Holyoke  College,  allusion 
to,  i44. 

Miinsterberg,  allusion  to,  97. 

National  Advisory  Committee 
for  Aeronautics,  27. 

National  Research  Council, 
31flF. 

New  York  University,  enroll- 


ment and  casualties,  213- 
14. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  allu- 
sion to,  140. 

North  Dakota,  University  of, 
enrollment  and  casual- 
ties, 219. 

Norton,  Richard,  quotation 
from,  15  ff. 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University, 
enrollment  and  casual- 
ties, 215. 

Oxford  and  the  war,  225-226. 

Patriotism  of  students,  6  ff., 
88. 

Pennsylvania  College,  enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  215. 

Perkins,  Roger  G.,  quotation 
from,    132  ff. 

Phelan,  R.  V.,  quotation  from, 
161. 

Physics  in  war,  120  ff. 

Pittsburg,  University  of,  en- 
rollment and  casualties, 
215. 

Poetry  as  interpreting  the 
war,   167  ff. 

Poulton,  Professor,  reference 
to,  267. 

Princeton  University,  enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  216. 

Purdue  University,  enroll- 
ment and  casualties, 
217-18. 

Randolph-Macon  College,  allu- 
sion to,  142. 

Reed  College,  Oregon,  allu- 
sion to,   142. 

Reeves,  Ira  L.,  and  the  Amer- 


Index 


275 


ican         University        in 

Fiance,    197-98. 
Relations,    international,    180 

flf. 
Religion  of  students,  151. 
Reserve      Officers'      Training 

Corps,  35  ff. 
Rhode    Island    State    College, 

enrollment     and     casual- 
ties, 217. 
Rhodes'    scholars,    service   of, 

21  ff. 
Rickard,  Forbes,  Jr.,  poem  to, 

by    Lieut.    H.    S.    White, 

268-69. 
Rochester,   University  of,   en- 
rollment   and    casualties, 

214. 
Romance  languages,  study  of, 

184  ff. 
Roumania,      commission      to, 

132  ff. 
Rutgers    College,    enrollment 

and  casualties,  216. 

St.  John's  College,  enrollment 
and  casualties,  216. 

St.    Ijouis    University,   enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  218. 

Schelling,     Professor,     quota- 
tion from,  190. 

Sciences  and  scientists,  115  ff. 

Scotch    universities    and    the 
war,  226  ff. 

Seeger,  Alan,  allusion  to,  20, 
172  ff. 
quotations  from,   10. 

Servia,  commission  to,   135  ff. 

Shipley,  Vice  Chancellor,  quo- 
tations from,   IHH,    19(1  11". 

Smith    College,    allusions    to, 
144,  145. 


Sorley,  C.  H.,  quotation  from, 

170. 
Spaulding,  Frank  E.,  and  the 
American    University    in 
France,    197  ff. 
quotation  from,  200-201. 
State  universities,  allusion  to, 

41  ff. 
Strong,  Dr.  Richard  P.,  serv- 
ice of,  18. 
Students,  age  of,   1-2. 
democracy  of,  2  ff. 
enrollment  of,  46  ff.,  85  ff. 
increase  of,  247  ff. 
killed,    210  ff. 
motives     of,     for     entering 

service,  1  ff. 
religion  of,   151. 
spirit  of,  99  ff. 
Students'       Army       Training 
Corps,  55  ff. 
gains  and  losses  of,  72  ff. 
Swarthmore     College,     enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  215. 
Syracuse    University,    enroll- 
ment and  casualties,  214. 


Taft,  W.  H.,  quotation  from, 
70  ff. 

Thucydides,  quotation  from, 
261  ff. 

Treitschke,  allusion  to,  194- 
95. 

Trinity  College  (Conn.),  en- 
rollment and  casualties, 
216. 

Trustees  of  colleges,  duties  of, 
53-54,  02. 

Union,  Anicricaii  University, 
195  ff. 


I'TG 


Index 


Union  University,  enrollment 
and  casualties,  214. 

United    States,   and   the   war, 
US. 
casualties,  211. 

Vassar  College,  allusions  to, 
142  ff.,    146. 

Virginia,  University  of,  en- 
rollment and  casualties, 
218. 

Waite,  Professor  F.  C,  quota- 
tion from,   126  ff. 

War  Department,  circular  of, 
56. 

Committee  on  Personnel,  27- 
28, 

Warren,  Sir  Herbert,  quota- 
tion from,  225-26. 

Washington,  University  of 
(Seattle),  enrollment  and 
casualties,  218. 

Waterhouse,  Irma,  quotation 
from,  146-47. 

Wellesley  College,  allusions 
to,  143-4,  145. 

Wesleyan  University  ( Conn. ) , 


enrollment     and     casual- 
ties, 216. 

Western    Reserve   University, 
allusion  to,  18. 
College   for   Women   of,   al- 
lusion to,    142. 

White,  Lieut.  H.  S.,  poem  to 
Forbes  Rickard,  Jr.,  268- 
69. 

Whitlock,  quotation  from,  22. 

Williams   College,   enrollment 
and  casualties,  214. 
memorial,  267-68. 

Women's  Colleges,  140  ff. 

Woodberry,  G.  E.,  quotation 
from,  178. 

Worcester  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, enrollment  and  cas- 
ualties, 214. 


Yale  University,   in  the  war, 
236  ff. 
enrollment    and    casualties, 
216. 

Young  ]\ren's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation,  153  ff. 

Yugo-Slav  students,  192  ff. 


IINIVLRSITV  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

Tliis  book  is  Dl'E  on  tlic  last  date  stanipt-d  below. 


1^          ^*"^rn-fn?r 
M/IR     a  1976 

^t^'Xi^mm 

DISCHAPGE-URU 

OCT  1  0 1989 

APR     3  1981 

-   '■  ...L           ."if.^: 

^        APh  :  ;. 

MAR  1  8  198'^ 

Form  L'J-Series  444 

/A^ 


3   '158  00675  6273 


OM 


6- 


U-G« 


AA    001  101  582    3 


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".i  ■ 

:ii  -^1 


